Table 5.
Comparison of means, medians, and selected percentiles of urinary concentrations of toxic and trace elements (μg/g creatinine) from previous studies with those from rural residents in Hainan Province, China (present study).
| Element | Country | n | Geometric Mean | Arithmetic Mean | Median | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| As | China (Hainan) | 531 | 73.2 | 97.1 | 73.2 | This study |
| General Populations | ||||||
| Japan | 210 | 114.9 | [34] | |||
| USA | 13516 | 25.1 | 20.1 | [35] | ||
| UK, Healthy volunteers (Asian) | 21 | 20.6 | 15.4 | [36] | ||
| UK, Healthy volunteers (Somali) | 22 | 7.2 | 6.5 | [36] | ||
| UK, Healthy volunteers (White) | 20 | 24.5 | 17.6 | [36] | ||
| Spain, Ria of Huelva | 818 | 1.44 | 2.03 | 1.63 | [37] | |
| Spain, Other Andalusian cities | 816 | 1.26 | 2.05 | 1.5 | [37] | |
| Vulnerable and Other Populations | ||||||
| USA/Mexico, Seasonal Farm Workers | 258 | 13.2 | 10.7 | [38] | ||
| Mexico (Morales) | 41 | 62.91 | [5] | |||
| Mexico (Martinez) | 39 | 40.28 | [5] | |||
| China (Guizhou), Polluted | 122 | 288.4 | [39] | |||
| China (Guizhou), Control | 123 | 56.23 | [39] | |||
| China, High exposure | 10 | 58.3 | [40] | |||
| China, Low exposure | 35 | 23.4 | [40] | |||
| China, Exposed subjects | 113 | 192.2 | [41] | |||
| China, Control site | 30 | 63.6 | [41] | |||
| Taiwan, Polluted, Male | 489 | 80.1 | [42] | |||
| Taiwan, Polluted, Female | 554 | 88.6 | [42] | |||
| Bangladesh, Village A, Male | 64 | 204 | [23] | |||
| Bangladesh Village A, Female | 108 | 219 | [23] | |||
| Bangladesh Village B, Male | 69 | 126 | [23] | |||
| Bangladesh Village B, Female | 121 | 174 | [23] | |||
| Bangladesh, Male | 4138 | 229.8 | [43] | |||
| Bangladesh, Female | 6264 | 297.6 | [43] | |||
| Bangladesh, Adult | 922 | 77 | [44] | |||
| Cd | China (Hainan) | 522 | 1.9 | 2.6 | 1.8 | This study |
| General Populations | ||||||
| USA | 4224 | 0.4 | 0.3 | [35] | ||
| USA (non-smoker), Age: 20–39, Male | 0.125 | [25] | ||||
| USA (non-smoker), Age: 20–39, Female | 0.179 | [25] | ||||
| USA (non-smoker), Age: 40–59, Male | 0.208 | [25] | ||||
| USA (non-smoker), Age: 20–39, Female | 0.342 | [25] | ||||
| USA (non-smoker), Age: 60+, Male | 0.366 | [25] | ||||
| USA (non-smoker), Age: 60+, Female | 0.507 | [25] | ||||
| Czech Republic, Adult | 657 | 0.29 | 0.31 | [45] | ||
| USA, Male | 6558 | 0.28 | [46] | |||
| USA, Female | 7398 | 0.4 | [46] | |||
| Spain (Ria of Huelva), Age: 18–69 | 818 | 0.49 | 0.65 | 0.57 | [37] | |
| Spain (Other Andalusian cities) | 816 | 0.57 | 0.74 | 0.63 | [37] | |
| Vulnerable and Other Populations | ||||||
| USA/Mexico, Seasonal Farm Workers | 258 | 0.20 | 0.2 | [35] | ||
| China, Exposed | 75 | 2.62 | [47] | |||
| China, Exposed | 80 | 1.64 | [47] | |||
| China, Non-exposed | 132 | 0.89 | [47] | |||
| China (Guizhou), Control | 123 | 0.86 | [39] | |||
| China (Guizhou), Polluted | 122 | 2.16 | [39] | |||
| Belgium, Far from incinerator plant | 63 | 0.49 | [48] | |||
| Belgium, Near incinerator plant 1 | 51 | 0.62 | [48] | |||
| Belgium, Near incinerator plant 2 | 33 | 0.43 | [48] | |||
| Spain, Incinerator plant—Far (1st) | 40 | 0.23 | [49] | |||
| Spain, Incinerator plant—Near (1st) | 46 | 0.37 | [49] | |||
| Spain, Incinerator plant—Far (2nd) | 46 | 0.23 | [49] | |||
| Spain, Incinerator plant—Near (2nd) | 52 | 0.35 | [49] | |||
| Spain, General Population | 165 | 0.25 | 0.23 | [50] | ||
| Occupational Exposure | 161 | 0.12 | 0.25 | 0.18 | [51] | |
| Pb | China (Hainan) | 526 | 3.3 | 4.3 | 3.1 | This study |
| General Populations | ||||||
| USA | 12092 | 1.6 | 1.2 | [35] | ||
| Spain, General Population | 165 | 1.11 | 1.05 | [50] | ||
| Vulnerable and Other Populations | ||||||
| USA/Mexico; Seasonal Farm Workers | 258 | 1.26 | 1.1 | [38] | ||
| Japan, Male (1985) | 159 | 3.17 | [52] | |||
| Japan, Male (1993) | 155 | 1.78 | [52] | |||
| Japan, Male (1998) | 156 | 1.04 | [52] | |||
| Japan, Female (1985) | 118 | 3.35 | [52] | |||
| Japan, Female (1993) | 157 | 2.26 | [52] | |||
| Japan, Female (1998) | 155 | 1.15 | [52] | |||
| Occupational Exposure | 161 | 12.75 | 22.28 | 9.42 | [35] | |
| Japan, Occupational Exposure | 257 | 87 | [26] | |||
| Se | China (Hainan) | 529 | 38.3 | 44.7 | 36.5 | This study |
| General Populations | ||||||
| USA | 114 | 83.6 | 76.6 | [35] | ||
| Vulnerable and Other Populations | ||||||
| Heroin Abuser | 48 | 18.82 | [53] | |||
| Healthy Control | 53 | 24.3 | [53] | |||
| Zn | China (Hainan) | 528 | 359 | 470 | 371 | This study |
| General Populations | ||||||
| USA | 2369 | 371.5 | 297.7 | [35] | ||
| Spain (Urban + Rural) | 434 | 698.7 | [54] | |||
| Cu | China (Hainan) | 528 | 11.6 | 15.1 | 11.0 | This study |
| General Populations | ||||||
| USA | 4648 | 22.5 | 16.0 | [35] | ||
| Spain (Ria of Huelva) | 818 | 8.4 | 11.7 | 8.9 | [37] | |
| Spain (Other Andalusia cities) | 816 | 8.6 | 12.6 | 9.0 | [44] | |
| Spain (Urban + Rural) | 434 | 26.6 | [54] |