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. 2014 Nov 26;12(12):5719–5763. doi: 10.3390/md12125719

Table 1.

Main features of palytoxin (PLTX), ciguatoxin (CTX), cyclic imines (CIs) and tetrodotoxin (TTX).

Toxin Principal Derivatives Producer Organism Vectors Syndromes and Effects in Humans Endemic Areas
PLTX Palytoxins Palythoa Fish, Molluscs, Crustaceans, Echinoderms Clupeotoxism
Rhabdomyolisis
Respiratory illness
Skin illness
Skeletal muscle injury
Digestive distress
Cardiac distress
Australia, New Zealand, French Polynesia, Cook Islands, Japan, Indonesia, Micronesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, Philippines, Singapore, Hawaii, Caribbean, Mexico, Brazil, Madagascar, Reunion Island, Mediterranean coastline of Europe
Putative PLTX
Ovatoxins
Ostreopsis cf. ovata
Ostreotoxins Ostreopsis lenticularis
Mascarenotoxins Ostreopsis mascarenensis
CTX Ciguatoxins
Gambiertoxins
Maitotoxins
Gambierdiscus sp. Fish Gastrointestinal effects
Neurological effects
Cardiovascular effects
French Polynesia, Cook Islands, Hawaii, Japan, Mexico, Tokelau, North Marianna, Tuvalu, Marshall Islands, Fiji, New Caledonia, Tonga, Vanuatu, Samoa, Kiribati, Australia, Micronesia Sri Lanka, Hong Kong, Vietnam, Indonesia, Madagascar, Reunion Island, Maldive Islands, Gulf of Mexico, Guadeloupe, Florida, Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Brazil, Canary Islands, Madeira
CIs Gymnodimines Gymnondinium selliformis Shellfish Not reported Canada, New Zealand, Japan, Denmark, Ireland, Norway, Spain, Italy, Tunisia
Spirolids Alexandrium ostenfeldii
Pinnatoxins Vulcanodinium sp.
Pteriatoxins unknown
Prorocentrolides Prorocentrum sp.
TTX Tetrodotoxins Vibrio sp.
Pseudomonas sp.
Alteromonas sp.
Pufferfish, Starfish, Blue-ring Octopus, Xanthid Crabs, Gastropods, Flatworm, Frogs, Goby, Newt Taricha Ichthyosarcotoxism
Numbness
Respiratory paralysis
Gastrointestinal effects
Japan, China, Taiwan, Madagascar, Australia, New Zealand, Korea, India, New Hampshire, New York, Pennsylvania, Viriginia, Chicago, California, Hawai, Bangladesh, Thailand, Norway, Meditaerranian region (Israel, Egypt and Greece), Spain (fish caught in Portugal)