Table 1.
DHA and metabolic diseases through lifetime.
| Lifetime | Author | Year | N | Age (Years) | DHA | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Childhood | ||||||
| Desci [3] | 2002 | 80 ♂ & ♀ | 12 | Plasma phospholipids ARA & DHA | Values of arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acid were significantly lower in diabetic children than in controls. | |
| Burrows [2] | 2011 | 48 ♂ & ♀ | Non-obese: 9.0 ± 0.9 Obese: 8.9 ± 1.2 | Erythrocyte fatty acid; the Omega-3 index (O3I) composition | Obese children had altered erythrocyte fatty acid composition unrelated to reported dietary intake. A greater proportion of obese children had an omega-3 index of <4.0 (high risk) compared with non-obese children. | |
| Vasickova [87] | 2011 | 120 ♂ & ♀ (obese) | 10.0 ± 1.9 | 300 mg/day DHA + 42 mg/d EPA for 3 weeks | Daily consumption of 300mg DHA and 42 mg EPA for three weeks leads to an improvement of the anthropometric and lipid parameters in obese children [87]. | |
| Juarez Lopez [89] | 2013 | 201 ♂ & ♀ (obese and insulin resistant) | 11.6 ± 0.7 | 12 weeks LC-PUFA supplementation, 360 mg EPA & 240 mg DHA daily | LC-PUFA supplementation for 12 weeks decreased the concentrations of glucose, insulin, triglyceride-levels and BMI. | |
| Damsgaardt [88] | 2013 | 73 ♂ & ♀ | 10.29 ± 0.58 | Plasma DHA &EPA concentrations | DHA was positively associated with mean arterial pressure in boys. | |
| Adolescence | ||||||
| Dangardt [92] | 2012 | 25 ♂ & ♀ | 15.6 ± 0.9 ♀ 15.7 ± 1.0 ♂ | 1,2 g/d LC-PUFAs (DHA & EPA) for 3 months | Three months of supplementation of omega-3 LCPUFA improved glucose and insulin homeostasis in obese girls without influencing body weight. | |
| Adulthood | ||||||
| Rivellese [107] | 1997 | 16 ♂ & ♀ (NIDDM patients with hypertriglyeridemia) | 56.0 ± 3.0 | First two months: 0.96gr EPA and 1.59 g DHA per day Last four months: 0.64 gr EPA and 1.06 gr DHA per day | DHA and EPA significantly reduced plasma triglycerides and VLDL- triglycerides without significant changes in blood glucose control. | |
| Mori [105] | 1999 | 56 ♂(overweight & hyperlipidemic) | 49.1 ± 1.2 | 4 g/day DHA, EPA or olive oil (placebo) for 6 weeks | Purified DHA but not EPA reduced ambulatory BP and HR in mildly hyperlipidemic men. | |
| Mori [104] | 2000 | 59 ♂ (overweight & hyperlipidemic) | 50.6 ± 1.4 | 4 g/day DHA, EPA or olive oil (placebo) for 6 weeks | DHA enhances vasodilator mechanisms and attenuates constrictor responses in the forearm microcirculation. | |
| Woodman [102] | 2003 | ♂ & ♀ (Hypertensive and diabetic) | 40–75 | 4 g/day DHA, EPA or olive oil (placebo) for 6 weeks | DHA increased low density lipoprotein particle size | |
| Kelley [106] | 2007 | 34 ♂ | 55.0 ± 2.0 | 7.5 g DHA-oil for 90 days | DHA supplementation for 45 d significantly decreased concentrations of fasting triacylglycerol, large VLDL, and intermediate-density lipoproteins and the mean diameter of VLDL particles. | |
| Sneddon [108] | 2008 | 69 ♂ | 32.4 ± 2.3 | 3 g/day CLA + 3 g/day omega-3 LC-PUFAs | Supplementation with conjugated linoleic acids (CLAs) plus omega-3 LC-PUFAs prevents increased abdominal fat mass and raises fat-free mass and adiponectin levels in obese adults | |
| Micallef [6] | 2009 | 124 ♂ & ♀ | 43.79 ± 2.22 | Plasma levels of DHA & EPA | BMI, waist circumference and hip circumference were inversely correlated with n-3 PUFA, EPA and DHA (p < 0.05 for all) in the obese group. Obese individuals had significantly lower plasma concentrations of total n-3 PUFA, compared with healthy-weight individuals. | |
| Stirban [98] | 2010 | 34 ♂ & ♀ (T2DM) | 56.8 ± 8.3 | 2 g/d EPA & DHA for 6 weeks | Six weeks of supplementation with LC-PUFAs reduced the postprandial decrease in macrovascular function relative to placebo. LC-PUFAs supplementation improved postprandial microvascular function. | |
| Itariu [109] | 2012 | 55 ♂ & ♀ (obese) | 39.0 ± 2.0 | 3,36 g/d EPA & DHA for 8 weeks | n-3 PUFAs, which was well tolerated, decreased the gene expression of most analyzed inflammatory genes in subcutaneous adipose tissue (p <0.05) and increased production of anti-inflammatory eicosanoids in visceral adipose tissue and subcutaneous adipose tissue (p <0.05). | |
| Labonte [96] | 2013 | 12 ♂ (obese +T2DM) | 54.1 ± 7.2 | 3 g/d EPA & DHA for 8 weeks | In obese patients with T2DM, EPA&DHA supplementation did not affect the gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in duodenal cells. | |
| Singhal [7] | 2013 | 328 ♂ & ♀ | 28.1 ± 4.8 | 1.6 g/day DHA | DHA supplementation did not improve endothelial function in healthy adolescents. Only triglyceride and very low-density lipoprotein concentrations were significant lower in DHA-supplemented individuals compared with controls. | |
| McDonald [101] | 2013 | 22 ♂ & ♀ Hypertensive and T2DM | 58.6 ± 8.8 | Daily supplementation of 1.8 g EPA and 1.5 g DHA for 8 weeks | LC-PUFAs diminish platelet superoxide production in T2DM hypertensive patients in vivo. | |
| Virtanen [99] | 2013 | 2122 ♂ | 53.1 ± 5.1 | Serum levels DHA, EPA, DPA | Men with higher serum level of EPA+DHA+DPA had a 33% lower multivariate-adjusted risk for T2DM. (Trend: p = 0.01) | |
| Mature and late adulthood | ||||||
| Woodman [100] | 2003 | 51 (39-♂ & 12-♀) (Hypertensive and diabetic) | 61.2 ± 1.2 | 4 g/day DHA, EPA or olive oil (placebo) for 6 weeks | DHA supplementation significantly reduced collagen aggregation and collagen-stimulated thromboxane release. | |
| Lemaitre [122] | 2003 | 54: Ischemic heart disease 125:non-fatal myocardial infarction 179: matched controls ♂ & ♀ | 79.1 ± 7.5 | DHA & EPA plasma phospholipids | Higher combined dietary intake of DHA and EPA, and possibly α-linolenic acid, may lower the risk of fatal ischemic heart disease in older adults. | |
| Tsitouras [123] | 2008 | 12 ♂ & ♀ | 66.1 ± 4.5 | Supplemented with 4 g/day EPA and DHA | Insulin sensitivity increased significantly after 8 weeks on the EPA- and DHA-diet, and serum C-reactive protein was significantly reduced. | |
| Heine-Böring [5] | 2010 | 1570 (686-♂ & 884-♀) | 64.0 ± 5.42 - ♂ 64.0 ± 5.6 -♀ | Food intake questionnaire; Dutch food composition table (DHA & EPA levels) | Subjects with a fish intake >19 g/d had a significantly lower prevalence of mild/moderate calcification. EPA plus DHA intake showed no significant associations. | |
| Djousse [48] | 2011 | 3088 ♂ & ♀ | 75.0 | Plasma phospholipids DHA and EPA | DHA is not associated with a higher incidence of T2DM, and individuals with higher EPA and DHA plasma concentrations had lower risk on T2DM. | |
DHA: docosahexaenoic acid; EPA: eicosapentaenoic acid; DPA: docosapentaenoic acid; CLA: conjugated linoleic acids; CHF: congestive heart failure; T2DM: diabetes mellitus type 2; NIDDM: non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus; VLDL: very-low-density-lipoprotein; N: number of participants; Age is represented in years and in Mean ± SD. Mean age >4 and ≤12 Year → childhood; Mean age >12 and ≤21 → adolescence; Mean age >21 and ≤60 → adulthood; Mean age >60 → middle and late adulthood.