Table 1.
Examples of nonglycolytic functions of glycolytic enzymes in various organisms.
| Enzyme | Normal glycolytic function | Moonlighting functions |
|---|---|---|
| Hexokinase | Conversion of glucose to glucose 6-phosphate | (i) Transcription regulation [29, 30] (ii) Apoptosis [31, 33] |
| Phosphoglucoisomerase | Conversion of glucose 6-phosphate into its isomer fructose 6-phosphate | (i) Cytokine neuroleukin (a nerve growth factor) [19–21] (ii) Autocrine motility factor [40] (iii) Differentiation and maturation mediator [41] |
| Phosphofructokinase | Conversion of fructose 6-phosphate to fructose 1,6-bisphosphate | (i) Vacuolar degradation of peroxisomes (microautophagy) [43] (ii) Plasminogen binding [44] (iii) RNA processing [45] |
| Aldolase | Splitting of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate into two sugar isomers dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate | (i) Motility in Toxoplasma gondii [49, 50] (ii) Cell adhesion in Neisseria meningitidis [51] (iii) Regulation of WASP/Arp2/3-stimulated actin dynamics [52] |
| Triosephosphate isomerase | Interconversion of dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde phosphate | (i) Defense against pathogens via contact-mediated killing by commensal organisms [58] (ii) Plasminogen binding [44] (iii) Aggregation causes neurological disorders [59] |
| Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase | Conversion of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate | (i) Plasminogen-binding protein [61] (ii) Transcription regulation [62] (iii) Iron metabolism [63] (iv) Apoptosis [64] |
| Phosphoglycerate kinase | Conversion of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to 3-phosphoglycerate | (i) Plasminogen binding [67] (ii) Actin binding and streptococcal invasion of epithelial cells [68] |
| Phosphoglycerate mutase | Conversion of 3-phosphoglycerate to 2-phosphoglycerate | Plasminogen binding [44] |
| Enolase | Conversion of 2-phosphoglycerate to phosphoenol pyruvate | (i) Plasminogen receptor [69] (ii) Transcription regulation [70, 72] (iii) DNA methyltransferase DNMT2 inhibitor [71] |
| Pyruvate kinase | Conversion of phosphoenol pyruvate to pyruvate | (i) Salivary mucin binding [77] (ii) Transcriptional regulation [82] (iii) Apoptosis [83] |
| Lactate dehydrogenase | Conversion of pyruvate to lactate | Epsilon crystalin [85] |