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. 2014 Dec 19;6(12):3488–3551. doi: 10.3390/toxins6123488

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© 2014 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Venom appendages of sea urchins (Echinoidea). (A) A secondary aboral spine of Asthenosoma vaium, showing spine tip and associated venom gland (sac) and muscle tissue; (B) Typical venomous globiferous pedicellaria. Pedicellaria shown is fanged with external venom glands on the valves. Distinct from “Fistulate” globiferous pedicellaria (internally located venom glands) [284]. Figure redrawn and modified from Halstead [274].