Table 2.
Baseline results for the effects of health coverage on mortality†
|
Results for under-5 mortality rate |
Results for female mortality rate (adult) |
Results for male mortality rate (adult) |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| FE-LS, (1) | IV-2SLS, (2) | FE-LS, (3) | IV-2SLS, (4) | FE-LS, (5) | IV-2SLS, (6) | |
| Government health | 0.581 | −13.193 | −1.218 | −2.583 | −1.019 | −2.210 |
| spending per capita | (0.009) | (0.018) | (0.102) | (0.050) | (0.070) | (0.025) |
| VHI health spending | 0.556 | −6.143 | 0.680 | 5.153 | 0.595 | 8.731 |
| (0.155) | (0.507) | (0.542) | (0.161) | (0.485) | (0.172) | |
| OOP health spending | 0.856 | 2.685 | −0.754 | −23.385 | −1.487 | −15.545 |
| (0.179) | (0.594) | (0.753) | (0.040) | (0.530) | (0.016) | |
| Immunization coverage | −1.962 | −2.203 | −1.957 | −9.841 | −1.123 | −7.858 |
| (0.000) | (0.073) | (0.242) | (0.030) | (0.450) | (0.020) | |
| Country fixed effects | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Year fixed effects | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| 1st-stage underidentification Lagrange multiplier test(statistic) | 8.50 | 46.81 | 31.75 | |||
| 1st-stage underidentification Lagrange multiplier test (p-value) | 0.004 | 0.000 | 0.000 | |||
| F-statistic | 17.75 | 3.95 | 11.52 | 4.40 | 23.68 | 9.89 |
| F-statistic (p-value) | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Number of countries | 153 | 153 | 148 | 148 | 148 | 148 |
| Observations | 1397 | 1397 | 1222 | 1222 | 1222 | 1222 |
The time period is 1995–2008. The models were estimated by standard least squares fixed effects (method FE-LS) or IVs through a two-stage least squares approach (method IV-2SLS), using as instruments the reverse-causality-adjusted coverage indicators (see the text). All regressions also control for GDP per capita, the primary education enrolment rate, the share of population aged 0–14 years and the share of population aged over 65 years. p-values (in parentheses under the coefficients) are from two-sided t-tests with standard errors robust to arbitrary heteroscedasticity and auto-correlation. Entries in italics indicate coefficients that are statistically significant at the 10% level of confidence or below.