Table 4.

Estimates of coverage effects in LMICs^†

	Results for under-5 mortality rate, IV-2SLS, (1)	Results for female mortality rate (adult), IV-2SLS		Results for male mortality rate (adult), IV-2SLS
		(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
	Sum of coefficients of main effect and interaction terms
Government health spending per capita	−90.772	−18.414		−12.004
	(0.069)	(0.135)		(0.120)
OOP health spending per capita		−49.014		−37.914
		(0.051)		(0.020)
Immunization coverage	−0.011	−9.406		−7.185
	(0.997)	(0.036)		(0.021)
OOP health spending (share of total)			34.439		15.902
			(0.036)		(0.939)
	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
Year fixed effects	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes
1st-stage underidentification Lagrange multiplier test (statistic)	4.96	17.58	1.06	5.39	0.01
1st-stage underidentification Lagrange multiplier test (p-value)	0.026	0.000	0.303	0.020	0.911
F-statistic: 2nd stage	1.98	2.99	2.05	7.84	2.45
F-statistic: 2nd stage (p-value)	0.007	0.000	0.006	0.000	0.001
Number of countries	153	148	148	148	148
Observations	1397	1222	1222	1222	1222

^†For each health coverage indicator, the table shows the two-stage least squares (method IV-2SLS) estimates from models where the baseline specification is expanded through the inclusion of interaction terms between an indicator for LMIC (equal to 1 if the country–year observation has a GDP per capita up to $12195; 0 otherwise) and each of the health spending and immunization variables. All regressions also control for GDP per capita, the primary education enrolment rate, the share of population aged 0–14 years and the share of population aged over 65 years. p-values (in parentheses under coefficients) are from two-sided t-tests with standard errors robust to arbitrary heteroscedasticity and auto-correlation. Entries in italics indicate coefficients that are statistically significant at the 10% level of confidence or below.