Table 5. Medications that associate with AKI at a population level.
| Study | Design/setting | Medication | AKI definition | Risk of AKI |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Leonard et al.174 (1987–2002) | Nested case–control in a National General Practitioner data set, London, UK | Proton-pump inhibitor | Acute interstitial nephritis (diagnosis codes, free text) | Adjusted OR 3.2 (95% CI: 0.80–12.79) |
| Dormuth et al.175 (1997–2008) | Nested case–control of new users aged >40 years, Canada+UK+USA | High-potency statins | Hospitalization for AKI using a validated coding algorithm | Fixed effect rate ratio: non-CKD 1.34 (95% CI: 1.25–1.43) CKD 1.1 (95% CI: 0.99–1.23) |
| Bird et al.176 (2001–2011) | Nested case–control study of men aged 45–80 years within a Health Plan Claims Database, United States | Fluoroquinolones | Hospitalization with a primary discharge diagnosis of ARF (ICD-9-CM) | RR 2.18 (95% CI: 1.74–2.73) |
| Hurst et al.177 (2002–2006) | Retrospective Cohort, Department of Defense EMR | Phosphate-based purgatives (USA) | 50% Increase in serum creatinine | Adjusted OR 2.35 (95% CI: 1.51–3.66) |
| Zhao et al.178 (2004–2008) | Population-based cohort study of elderly adults, Ontario, Canada | Fibric acid derivatives | Hospitalization for increase in serum creatinine code (ICD-10) within 90 days of prescription | Adjusted OR 2.4 (95% CI: 1.7–3.3) |
| Schneider et al.179 (2006) | Nested case–control study of elderly patients in Quebec, Canada | NSAIDs/COX-2 inhibitors | Hospitalization with ICD-9 discharge diagnoses of acute renal failure within 30 days of prescription | RR 2.05 (95% CI: 1.61–2.60) |
| Wikman et al.180 (2008–2011) | Prospective cohort of 271 consecutively treated HIV patients | HAART therapy (Madrid/Spain) | RIFLE/AKIN | 7 episodes/100 patient-years |
| Gandhi et al.181 (2003–2012) | Population-based retrospective cohort of elderly adults in Ontario, Canada | Calcium-channel blocker+clarithromycin | Hospitalization with ICD-9 discharge diagnoses of acute renal failure within 30 days of prescription | OR 1.98 (95% CI: 1.68–2.34) compared with azithromycin |
Abbreviations: AKI, acute kidney injury; ARF, acute renal failure; CI, confidence interval; CKD, chronic kidney disease; COX-2, cyclooxygenase-2; EMR, electronic medical record; HAART, highly active antiretroviral therapy; ICD-9-CM, International Classification of Diseases, Clinical Modification; NSAID, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug; OR, odds ratio; RR, relative risk.