Fig. 3.

Combined air quality plus climate change externalities attributable to each scenario, relative to the gasoline scenario. [The gasoline scenario impacts (air quality, $0.53/gallon; climate change, $0.46/gallon) would equal zero on this plot.] EV scenarios include battery production. Air quality impacts include PM_2.5 and O₃. For bars with both positive and negative values, the triangle above each bar shows the net total impact. GHG emissions from indirect land-use change are not included. See Fig. S4 for the impact of including indirect land-use change on net GHG emissions.