Table 5.

A summary of the literature per service category

Service	Summary of the Literature
Extended Time	Extended time on tests increases number of items completed for students both with and without ADHD (Lewandowski et al. 2007; Pariseau et al. 2010). It also reduces the discrepancy between the reading comprehension abilities score and verbal comprehension abilities (Brown et al., 2011).
Small Group	Students with ADHD displayed more on-task behavior during the small-group condition than during the independent- seatwork and the whole-group instruction conditions. However, students with ADHD completed a greater proportion of work accurately during independent seatwork than in small group or whole-group conditions. Thus, small group instruction may improve students’ on-task behavior, but not accuracy or speed (Hart et al., 2011).
Prompting	This is often suggested as a method to help students with ADHD stay on task (e.g., Pfiffner and Barkley, 1998). Prompting/cueing resulted in increased on-task behavior when in combination with other services (e.g., Granger et al., 1996), but it is unclear what improvement can be attributed to prompting and cueing alone.
Test Aids	No studies were found investigating the effect of this modification on on-task behavior or performance of students with ADHD. However, studies investigating the use of calculators during tests for non-ADHD populations have reported that the effect of using a calculator differs largely depending on the types of items included in tests (Loyd, 1991) and the students’ prior experience using a calculator (Bridgeman et al., 1995).
Read-Aloud	Oral reading consistently produced more effective comprehension than did silent reading. However, due to a small sample size (N=2), no firm conclusions can be drawn from these results (Dubey and O'Leary, 1975).
Breaks	Although this strategy is recommended by some researchers (e.g., Nadeau, 1995), no studies were found investigating the effect of this service on on-task behavior or performance of students with ADHD.
Study Support	No studies were found investigating the effect of this service on the behaviors of students with ADHD.
Reduction	Shortening tasks resulted in more intervals of on-task behavior than did long assignments. However, this strategy was also combined with others, so it is difficult to draw firm conclusions (Kern et al., 1994; Penno et al., 2000).
Behavior Modification	This intervention is the most studied and empirically validated approach to improve the behavior of student’s with ADHD. In a meta-analysis conducted by Fabiano and colleagues (2008), the overall unweighted effect sizes in between group studies (.83), pre-post (.70), within group studies (2.64), and single subject studies (3.78) of behavioral treatments for children with ADHD indicated that behavioral treatments are effective.
One-on-one	While on-task behavior did not improve, students with ADHD completed a greater proportion of work accurately during independent seatwork than in small group or whole-group (Hart et al., 2011).
Modeling Skills	Modeling appropriate behavior, in addition to contingent rewards, increased practice, and a token economy system, increased the reading fluency for three 9 year old boys (Noell et al., 1998).
Preferential Seating	Closer teacher proximity resulted in lower rates of disengagement, although no differences were found in socially appropriate behaviors or aggressive behaviors when teachers were proximal compared with distal for 10 to 13 year old boys (Granger et al., 1996). Dunlap and colleagues (1993) reported higher rates of appropriate behaviors. However, due to small sample size and unclear diagnostic criteria, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions.
Material Organization	Studies have investigated the effects of providing organization support to adolescents with ADHD in both organization specific studies (e.g., Abikoff et al., 2012; Langberg et al., 2008; 2012) and as a part of multicomponent studies (e.g., Evans et al., 2004; 2005; 2007; 2009; Hechtman et al., 2004; Pfiffner et al., 2007; Power et al., 2012). Improvement in organization of school materials and the used of assignment books to track homework was reported for students with ADHD following the implementation of this intervention.
Planner Organization	See the summary of the literature by “Material Organization Support”1
Adapted Grading	No studies were found investigating the effect of this modification on on-task behavior or performance of students with ADHD.
Copy of Notes	No studies were found investigating the effect of giving copies of notes to students on on-task behavior or performance of students with ADHD.
Dividing Tasks	This technique is a main component in several promising interventions (e.g., Computer Assisted Instruction, peer tutoring, note-taking instruction, and self-monitoring interventions; Raggi and Chronis, 2006) and one case study reported that dividing tasks resulted in improved behaviors (Dunlap et al., 1993).
P/T Contact	Although no studies were found investigating the effects of increased parent-teacher communication alone on on-task behavior or performance, this service is a key aspect of an empirically supported intervention called the Daily Report Card (DRC; see Evans, Owens, Reinicke, Brown, & Grove, 2012).

¹Material Organization and Planner Organization were coded as separate categories as often either one or the other would be listed on an IEP or 504 Plan. However, the research-base for these categories combines these approaches.