TABLE 5.

Environmental impacts of diets in developing regions of the world¹

Study, year (reference), country	Diets	Environmental impacts	Key results	Author conclusions	Limitations of study
Pathak et al., 2010 (24), India	Five common nutritionally balanced diets in India: 1) vegetarian, 2) lacto-vegetarian (vegetarian with milk), 3) ovo-vegetarian (nonvegetarian with egg), 4) nonvegetarian with poultry meat, 5) nonvegetarian with mutton	GHGe (g CO2eq/d) were determined using LCA (production, processing, transportation, and preparation) based on published data	GHGe were 40% higher for nonvegetarian vs. vegetarian meals. Nonvegetarian meal with mutton had 1.8 times more GHGe than vegetarian, 1.5 times more than nonvegetarian with chicken and ovo-vegetarian, and 1.4 times more than lacto-vegetarian. In nonvegetarian meal with mutton, GHGe from mutton (35%) were similar to those from rice (34%). In lacto-vegetarian meal, 49% GHGe were from rice, 22% were from milk.	A change in food habits could offer a possibility for GHGe mitigation. Some potential options to reduce GHGe from food may be consumption of locally produced foods; less mutton; substitute meat and milk with vegetable protein	Diet-related GHGe limited to 16 food products. LCA for GHGe covered on farm production, transport, processing, and preparation (consumer) but not storage and handling losses during production or storage at households. LCA for GHGe from different sources.
Zhen et al., 2010 (41), rural Guyuan, China	Habitual diets	Land requirements for 8 food categories (25 foods/subcategories) determined per capita (m2) and per household (m2 per household)	Food consumption pattern in Guyuan depends on wheat; more mixed for China. Less meat consumed than plant foods; land requirement for meat was only 5.7% of arable land (national average, 8.4%). Animal protein intake was 7.5% of total protein, below recommended 30% protein intake.	In Guyuan, food consumption met only basic energy needs for survival, with protein, especially animal protein, and fat below recommendations. Meat consumption expected to increase with projected increasing incomes of local people, thus toward a more balanced diet.	Several uncertainties and assumptions in estimates of food consumption and land requirements.
	- Surveys of household food consumption in rural Guyuan, China, compared with rural China
Dong-dong et al., 2010 (42), rural China	Diet patterns from Rural Household Survey, National Bureau of Statistics of China, based on 8 main food categories: grains, fresh vegetables, edible vegetable oil, meat (pork, mutton, beef, poultry, fish), fresh milk, eggs, sugar, and alcoholic beverages	Ecological footprint from 1980 to 2006 based on food consumption data and land requirements for foods (energy land, fishing land, grassland, cropland, arable land for grain, and arable land for meat)	In rural areas, per capita land requirements decreased, not expanded, over the decades. Higher productivity of arable land has greatly reduced pressure on resources for food consumption by rural residents in China.	Approach can serve to link how food consumption patterns relate to aggregated demands for resources. New framework to apply ecological economy methodology in agro-ecosystem.	Proof-of-principle study; broad applicability to other regions not examined.

¹CO₂eq, carbon dioxide equivalents; GHGe, greenhouse gas emissions; LCA, life cycle assessment.