Table 1.

Definitions and approaches to anticipation

Fields	Definition	Themes addressed	Sources
Philosophy	According to Husserl, anticipation is the way in which the merely co-presented is present in perceptual experience. Heidegger’s “Philosophy of Death” describes anticipation as “the possibility of understanding one’s own most and uttermost potentiality-for-Being-that is to say, the possibility of authentic existence”	Anticipation as a component of consciousness; humans’ expectations	Husserl (1991), Bloch (1995), Heidegger (1962, p. 260)
Biology	Rosen’s Theory of Anticipatory Systems states that: “An anticipatory system is a system containing a predictive model of itself and/or its environment, which allows it to change state at an instant in accord with the model’s predictions pertaining to a later instant.” His theory showed that anticipation is not limited to living systems. Poli (2010, p. 8) states, “non-living or non-biological systems can be anticipatory”	Theory of Anticipatory Systems	Rosen (1985, p. 341), Louie (2009), Louie and Poli (2011), Poli (2009, 2010, 2011)
Psychology	The psychology of imagining the consequences of hedonic future events and future orientation of cognitive studies	Cognitive studies	Fukukura et al. (2013)
Physics	Dubois (2000) distinguishes between weak anticipation: when systems use a model of themselves for computing future states; and strong anticipation: when the system uses itself for the construction of its future states. With strong anticipation, anticipation is no longer similar to prediction (see planning below)	Anticipation can stabilize otherwise unstable states; Anticipation is stored in a system’s potential energy	Dubois (2000), Ferret (2010)
Anthropology	In relation to climate change, Nuttall (2010, p. 23) states, “While adaptation is largely about responses to climate change, anticipation is about intentionality, action, agency, imagination, possibility, and choice; but it is also about being doubtful, unsure, uncertain, fearful, and apprehensive.” Nuttall finds that anticipation may be a prerequisite for thinking about CCA	Anticipation to orient human action; how people make choices and decisions based on predictions, expectations or beliefs about the future	Bennett (1976), Nuttall (2010)
Resilience	Anticipatory adaptation acts on the best models of climate change impacts. They “are effective in creating systems that are able to maintain their state in response to the unexpected crises arising from climate change” (Martin-Breen and Anderies 2011, p. 48)	Anticipation is an important feature of resilience. Resilience literature mentions anticipation but does not seem to draw extensively upon anticipation theory	Almedom et al. (2007), Martin-Breen and Anderies (2011), Berkes et al. (2003)
Futures, planning	According to Fuerth (2009, p. 29), anticipatory governance is “a system of institutions, rules and norms that provide a way to use foresight for the purpose of reducing risk, and to increase capacity to respond to events at early rather than later stages of their development”	Anticipatory governance; forecasting, simulation, trend extrapolation, scenarios. Anticipation is well developed in this field	Quay (2010), Fuerth (2009), Karinen and Guston (2010), Miller (2006, 2007, 2011, 2012)