Table 4.

Properties, applications, and innovative approaches for nanomembranes

Nanomembranes	Properties		Applications	Novel approaches
	Positive	Negative
Nanofiltration membranes	Charge-based repulsion, relative low pressure, high selectivity	Membrane blocking (concentration polarization)	Reduction of hardness, color, odor, heavy metals	Sea water desalination
Nanocomposite membranes	Increased hydrophilicity, water permeability, fouling resistance and thermal/mechanical robustness	Resistant bulk material required when using oxidizing nanomaterial, possibly release of nanoparticles	Highly dependent on type of composite, eg, reverse osmosis, removal of micropollutants	Bionanocomposite membranes
Self-assembling membranes	Homogeneous nanopores, tailor-made membranes	Small quantities available (laboratory scale)	Ultrafiltration	Process scale up
Nanofiber membranes	High porosity, tailor-made, higher permeate efficiency, bactericidal	Pore blocking, possibly release of nanofibers	Filter cartridge, ultrafiltration, prefiltration, water treatment, stand­alone filtration device	Composite nanofiber membranes, bionanofiber membranes
Aquaporin-based membranes	High ionic selectivity and permeability	Mechanical weakness	Low pressure desalination	Stabilization processes (surface imprinting, embedding in polymers)