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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2015 Dec 1.
Published in final edited form as: Glob Heart. 2014 Dec;9(4):431–443. doi: 10.1016/j.gheart.2014.11.003

Table 5. Risk factors for COPD in HICs and in LMICs.

Prevalence
Risk factor HICs LMICs
Cigarette smoke High Variable, ranging from low [31] to high according to the settings
Biomass fuel smoke Low to nonexistent High
Outdoor air pollution High High in urban areas (less regulation of traffic-related pollution than in HICs), low in rural areas
Occupational exposures Low (better regulations and controls for workers) Likely several-fold higher than in HICs because of fewer safety measures for workers
Pulmonary tuberculosis Low High
Lower respiratory tract infections in early childhood Low High
Poorly controlled asthma Low Higher than in HICs because of lack of access to both medical care and treatments [32]
Malnutrition Low High

COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; HIC, high-income country; LMIC, low- and middle-income country.