Table 1.

Comparison of different methods of inclusion of Native Americans and other stakeholders in solving environmental problems.

Parameter or phase	Traditional method of science	Inclusion of governmental agencies	Inclusion of Native Americans and non-governmental stakeholders
Problem-formulation	Designed by scientists based on theory, environmental data, or past research	Designed by scientists or by agency personnel, influenced by agency needs and grant/contract requests	Designed by scientists in collaboration with Native American tribes or entities, governmental agencies, and other stakeholders
Research plan	Designed by scientists based on the problem and past research	Designed by scientists (from either academia or agencies), using approved methods and protocols of agencies	Designed by scientists in collaboration with Native Americans and other entities (mentioned above)
Research plan refinement	Usually based on research needs and problems encountered during execution	Based on research needs of scientists	Refinement based on requests and needs of Native American entities and other interested and affected parties
Data collection	Conducted by scientists	Conducted by research scientists, often with no agency involvement	Inclusion of Aleuts on the expedition to collect, using their usual subsistence methods
Research and data analysis phase	Conducted by scientists	Conducted by research scientists, sometimes with agency personnel	Conducted with inclusion of some Native Americans of other entities
Dissemination of research findings	By scientists, usually in peer- reviewed journals	By scientists, usually as reports to governmental agencies and/or in peer-reviewed journals	By scientists and other contributors of the research, such as Native Americans, regulators or government agency personnel
Public communication	Often non-existent	Often non-existent, but sometimes in public workshops or through newspapers	Through media outlets (newspapers, newsletters), public workshops, visits to Native villages, affected towns, agency offices, and with other affected parties
Follow-through or path forward	Usually results in further grant applications	May result in further grant or contract applications, further collaborations with the agency	May result in products that contribute to solving a particular problem faced by Native Americans, or by affected or interested parties