Fig. 2.

Hypothetical model of the peripheral and central effects of glucose on food intake. Luminal glucose activates vagal afferents via the release of 5-HT or GLP-1. Vagal afferents express GLP-1 and 5-HT receptors, and are implicated in the regulation of insulin secretion. Many neuronal signals are communicated via the vagus nerve to the brain stem, which relays the glucose signal to hypothalamic nuclei and then to the pertinent target cells: NPY/AgRP and POMC/CART neurons. NPY neuropeptide Y, AgRP agouti-related protein, POMC proopiomelanocortin, CART cocaine–amphetamine-related transcript, AMP adenosine monophosphate, AMPK AMP kinase, ACC acetyl-CoA carboxylase. Black arrows activation; discontinued red lines inhibition; thin discontinued red line weak activation [4, 51, 52, 54, 57, 58, 72, 182]