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Mechanisms of mesenchymal stem cells transplantation for CVDs. MSCs can differentiate into CMCs, ECs and VSMCs to replace the loss of cardiovascular cells. Besides, MSCs also secreted paracrine factors and exosomes to target heart and vasculature to exert anti-apoptosis, anti-cardiac remodeling, anti-inflammatory reactions, neovascularization and anti-vascular remodeling effects.
