Table 4.

Results of Studies That Have Examined the Effects of Printed Frequency and Semantic Concreteness

Original study	Results
Winnick & Kressel (1965)	Concrete worse than abstract
Paivio & O’Neill (1970)	Concrete worse than abstract
Richards (1976, Experiment 1)	Concrete better than abstract
James (1975)
Experiment 1	Concrete better than abstract
Experiment 2	Concrete better than abstract
Experiment 3	Concrete equal to abstract
Experiment 4	Concrete equal to abstract
Rubenstein, Garfield, & Millikan (1970)	Concrete equal to abstract
Richards (1976, Experiment 2)	Concrete equal to abstract

Note. Data are for low-printed-frequency words only.