Table 1.

Immunomodulating Effects of Melanocortins

Regulation	Class	Specific molecules	References
Downregulation	Proinflammatory	IL-1, IL-6, TNF-α	[35, 36] [37, 38] [35, 37–39]
Downregulation	Immunomodulatory	IL-2, IL-4, IL-13, IFN-γ, IL-17	[40] [16, 41, 42] [16, 43] [42] [44]
Downregulation	Co-stimulatory receptors	CD40, CD86 (CD27)	[45] [46]
Downregulation	Antigen presentation	MHC class I, CD1a	[46] [47]
Downregulation	Adhesion molecules	ICAM-1, VCAM-1, E-selectin	[48, 49]
Downregulation	Effectors	Nitric oxide, Prostaglandin E, Reactive oxygen intermediates, Myeloperoxidase, MMP-1, MMP-3, and MMP-13	[50, 51] [52, 53] [38, 54] [43] [37, 55]
Downregulation	Chemokines/growth factors	IL-8/IL-8R CCL2, CXCL1	[37, 38, 43] [56] [56]
Downregulation	Innate signaling mechanisms	TLR4 CD14	[57] [58]
Upregulation	Immunomodulatory	IL-10, TGF-β, LAP	[29, 59] [60] [60]
Upregulation	Protective mechanisms	Superoxide dismutase 2, heme oxygenase 1, Bcl-2 Bcl-xL	[61] [61] [53, 62] [63]