Table 1.
Selected examples of molecular regulators of astrogliosis
| Categories | Source | Molecules |
|---|---|---|
| Extracellular molecular signals | ||
| DAMPs | Cell damage | Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitric oxide (NO), high-mobility group box 1 (HGMB1), etc. |
| Hypoxia and metabolic stress | Ischemia | Oxygen deprivation, glucose deprivation |
| Transmitters | Local neurons | Glutamate (Glut), noradrenalin (NE) |
| Hormones | Endocrine glands | Estrogens, glucocorticoids |
| Neurodegeneration | β-amyloid (Aβ) | |
| PAMPs | Microbes | LPS, zymosan, dsRNA (viral) |
| Systemic metabolic toxicity (liver failure) | Ammonium (NH4+) | |
| Serum proteins | Bloodstream | Thrombin, albumin, fibrin, etc. |
| Cytokines and growth factors | Other glia, local nonneural cells, infiltrating leukocytes | IL-1β, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interferon (INF)-γ, IL-6, ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), transforming growth factor (TGF)-β, IL-10, epidermal growth factor (EGF), fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-2, Sonic Hedgehog (SHH), endothelin (END) |
| Astrocyte intrinsic signaling pathways and regulatory mechanisms | ||
| Signal transducers | STAT3, STAT2, STAT2, JAK2, NF-κB, IRAK, SOC3, MAP-kinase, SOX9, Nrf2, Olig2, cAMP, Nurr1, SMAD3, SMAD4, mTOR, c-FOS, c-JUN, PKA, PKC, ERK, MyDD8, IRF1, G proteins, etc. | |
| microRNAs | miR-21, miR-181, Dicer (ribonuclease) identified thus far | |
Nomenclature for growth factors, cytokines, chemokines, receptors, and transcription factors are per The Human Gene Compendium, GeneCards (see www.genecards.org).
DAMPs, danger-associated molecular patterns; PAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns.