Fig. 1.

Renin angiotensin pathway. Simplified overview of the RAS. A Conventional RAS pathway: angiotensinogen is cleaved by renin to form Ang1, is converted to angiotensin II peptide (Ang II) by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), and acts on angiotensin II receptor type 1 (AT1) to cause vascular dysfunction, inflammation, and oxidative damage. B Bradykinin breakdown: vasodilatory peptide broken down by ACE. C Adjunctive RAS axis: angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) converts Ang II to peptide angiotensin (1–7) [Ang (1–7)], acts on the Mas (AT7) receptor, and induces cardioprotective mechanisms. D Ang (1–7) breakdown: ACE hydrolyzes Ang (1–7) to Ang (1–5), which inhibits cardioprotective mechanisms (Schindler et al. 2007)