Table 2.
Tests of Indirect Effects for the Structural Models for Wave 1 and Wave 2
| Path | Total | Direct | Indirect |
|---|---|---|---|
| Wave 1 | |||
| Mothers’ American Orientation → Parenting | |||
| American orientation → bicultural difficulty → depress → punitive parenting | −.129* | −.123* | −.006* |
| American orientation → bicultural difficulty → depress → democratic | .089 | .085 | .004 |
| American orientation → bicultural difficulty → depress → inductive reasoning | .190*** | .181*** | .010* |
| Fathers’ Chinese Orientation → Parenting | |||
| Chinese orientation → bicultural difficulty → depress → punitive parenting | .062 | .052 | .010* |
| Chinese orientation → bicultural difficulty → depress → democratic | .073 | .075 | −.002 |
| Chinese orientation → bicultural difficulty → depress → inductive reasoning | .009 | .019 | −.010* |
| Fathers’ American Orientation → Parenting | |||
| American orientation → bicultural difficulty → depress → punitive parenting | −.014 | .001 | −.015** |
| American orientation → bicultural difficulty → depress → democratic | .229*** | .226*** | .003 |
| American orientation → bicultural difficulty → depress → inductive reasoning | .201*** | .187*** | .014** |
|
| |||
| Wave 2 | |||
| Mothers’ Chinese Orientation → Parenting | |||
| Chinese orientation → bicultural difficulty → depress → punitive parenting | .106 | .098 | .009* |
| Chinese orientation → bicultural difficulty → depress → democratic | −.011 | .004 | −.007 |
| Chinese orientation → bicultural difficulty → depress → inductive reasoning | −.033 | −.025 | −.008 |
| Fathers’ American Orientation → Parenting | |||
| American orientation → bicultural difficulty → depress → punitive parenting | −.120 | −.114 | −.006 |
| American orientation → bicultural difficulty → depress → democratic | .130* | .127* | .003 |
| American orientation → bicultural difficulty → depress → inductive reasoning | .204*** | .197*** | .007 |
Note: Bicultural difficulty = Bicultural management difficulty. Depress = Depressive symptoms. Democratic = Democratic child participation. Because mothers’ Chinese orientation at Wave 1 and American orientation at Wave 2, and fathers’ Chinese orientation at Wave 2, were unrelated to bicultural management difficulty, the indirect effects of these variables on parenting were not tested. Mothers at Wave 1, n = 407; Fathers at Wave 1, n = 381; Mothers at Wave 2, n = 308; Fathers at Wave 2, n = 281.
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.
***
p < .001.