Table 1.

Definitions and Examples of Self-enhancement and Self-Improvement Codes by Ethnicity

SELF-ENHANCEMENT Situational Attributions for Negative Events: Explaining negative personal events with external attributions

European American   “I don’t know why it is but I don’t do very well in a stable environment”

Asian American   “Stress from school always seemed to affect the relationship, not enough time for each other, worrying about poor grades.”

Downward Social Comparison: Comparison to others doing worse than the self

European American   “My other siblings easily drop the ball.”

Asian American   “I can handle the stress of certain tests that people deemed too difficult.”

SELF-IMPROVEMENT Upward Social Comparison: Comparison to others doing better than the self

European American   “I can’t help but feel uneasy and useless, not good enough when my friends seem to be getting so far ahead, yet I feel like I’ve back-tracked 20 steps.”

Asian American   “Looking at great men who came before me, as role models, I should strive to emulate their consistency and composure.”

Persistence: Actively Thinking about Persevering through Conflicts/Stressors

European American   “It is amazing how I was still able to do well in high school and come here to University.”

Asian American   “I was proud of my tenacity – I pulled through that experience and now I am a better person because of it.