Table 10.

Summary of in vitro studies of antimicrobial activity of PCA.

Model	Method	PCA concentration	Major finding	Interpretation	Reference
Campylobacter spp	Antimicrobial activity testing	(i) 10 mg/mL (ii) 5, 10 mg/100 g beef	(i) PCA inhibited growth and susceptible and antibiotic-resistant Campylobacter species  (ii) PCA inhibited growth of aerobes in beef samples (iii) PCA decreased lipid oxidation levels in ground beef	(i) PCA could preserve foods to prevent contamination by Campylobacter and aerobes, via decreased lipid oxidation	[62]
Pseudomonas aeruginosa	Antimicrobial susceptibility testing	2,000 μg/mL	(i) PCA inhibited growth of Pseudomonas  aeruginosa  (ii) PCA plus sulfamethoxazole increased synergistic mode of inhibition of P. aeruginosa	(i) PCA had an antibacterial effect by inhibiting bacterial growth and increasing the synergistic effects on antibiotics to reduced drug resistance	[63]
Bacteria and fungi	Antimicrobial activity testing	1.22–625 μg/mL	(i) PCA prevented 80% of the growth of organisms	(i) PCA had an antimicrobial effect against gram positive and negative bacteria and against fungi	[60]
Helicobacter pylori	Antimicrobial susceptibility testing	8–64 mg/L	(i) PCA inhibited growth of H. pylori  (ii) PCA reduced drug-resistant H. pylori  (iii) PCA at (32–40 mg/L) reduced urease activity of H. pylori to 40%	(i) PCA had growth prevention effects on H. pylori	[61]