FIG. 1.

Summary of the main anti-aging effects of regular exercise vs. aging effects at the multi-systemic (left; see Chodzko-Zajko et al.⁶⁴ for an in-depth review) and cellular level (right; see text). AKT, protein kinase B; AMPK, AMP-activated protein kinase; ASC, apoptosis-associated speck-like protein caspase; AUF1, AU-binding factor 1; BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor; FoxO3a, human protein encoded by the FOXO3 gene; Glut 4, glucose transporter type 4; HATs, histone acetyltransferases; HDACs, histone deacetylases; HRV, heart rate variability; IGF-1, insulin-like growth factor 1; IL, interleukin; jmjC, jumonji C proteins; LSD, lysine-specific histone demethylase; miR, micro-RNA; mtDNA, mitochondrial DNA; mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin; NK cell, natural killer cell; NLRP3, NOD-like receptor protein 3; PBMCs, peripheral blood mononucleated cells; PDK4, pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase isoenzyme 4; PGC-1, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1; PPAR-δ, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ; PTMs, post-translational modifications; Qmax, maximal cardiac output; ROM, range of motion; SIRT, sirtuin; TERT, human telomerase reverse transcriptase. Color images available online at www.liebertpub.com/rej