Table 1. Recruitment methods and intervention strategies of internet intervention studies reviewed.
| Study (author/s, year) | Target group demographics and size (n) | Recruitment methods | Setting/location | Study design/intervention |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tobacco prevention | ||||
| Japuntich et al. (2006) | N = 284 smokers | Billboards, bus interior posters, flyers, television ads and press releases | Milwaukee and Madison, WI | RCT; 12 weeks; CHESS smoking cessation and relapse prevention – 20 minutes individual counseling to increase motivation; bupropion 2×/day, follow-up, study computer, dial-up Internet connection and 12 weeks of access to CHESS SCRP website. They were encouraged to access once per day. Phone calls received if no log in for one week |
| McKay, Danaher, Seeley, Lichtenstein, and Gau (2008) | N = 2318; 18+ year-old current smokers – wanting to quit within next 30 days | Internet-based recruitment – Google and Yahoo ads, and word of mouth | N/A | RCT; smoking cessation program using models, including cognitive behavioral strategies, smoking cessation info, behavior self-management, behavior change recommendations, peer support, and engaging video testimonials |
| Patten et al. (2006) | N = 139 adolescent smokers 11–18 years | Television commercials, radio and newspaper announcements, flyers displayed in schools and clinics; incentives of $10 for each assessment visit at weeks 4–24 and $20 at week 36 | Rochester, MN; Madison, WI; Hartford, CT | RCT; access to “Stomp out Smokes” and Internet for 24 weeks, 38 components; services for private journaling service, quizzes, quit plan and quit notes, and art gallery; assessment visits staff had no personal contact with participants; no telephone or email prompts provided |
| Severson et al. (2008) | N = 2523 smokeless tobacco users | News releases to print and broadcasting media, paid ads on Google.com, links on other websites, paid ads in newspapers and magazines, direct mailing to identified smokeless tobacco users, targeted mailings to health care and tobacco control professionals; incentives – $10.00 for each follow-up assessment and $20 if all three completed | USA or Canada | RCT; personal quitting assistant, streaming video (displaying quitting info and testimonials), streaming video, and broader range of printable resources, “ask and expert” forum and peer forum, and links to other websites; up to three tailored emails before their quit date, supportive message sent 1, 7, and 14 days after their reported quit date and three re-engagement emails sent 7, 30, and 60 days after last login |
| Swartz, Noell, Schroeder, and Ary (2006) | N = 351; 18+ year-old current smokers – wanting to quit within next 30 days | Recruited through large worksites, promotional materials w/ www.Quitcigs.org address, employees placed Quitcigs website on intranet sites or in emails and electronic newsletters to employees | Large worksites | RCT; web program automated approximation of live smoking cessation counselor, five major content modules addressing benefits, barriers, avoidance and craving strategies, and development of a “Quit w/n 30 days Calendar” |
| Alcohol prevention | ||||
| Bingham et al. (2010) | N = 1137 first-year college students, 18–20 years | Random selection by email invitations to students' unique address, flyers in dorms and campus shuttles, student testimonial and endorsement by Student Health Services Director; incentives: baseline = $10, post-test = $15, sessions 1–3 = $10 ea., session 4 = $15 and mid-interval survey = $10 | University of Michigan | Intervention/control design; nine weeks M-PASS: four 10–15 minutes online sessions tailored to participants’ alcohol-related risk, incorporated interactive activities, generated feedback on topics, tailored and reminder emails sent throughout intervention to guide participants to completion. Activities – quizzes, self-assessments, and exercises w/ avatars |
| Doumas and Hannah (2008) | N = 124 young adult, 18–24 employees | Recruited through five HR departments in local companies with high numbers of employees in 18–24-years age group | Metropolitan, North West workplaces | RCT; web-based intervention (WI) – brief program providing personalized normative feedback about drinking. Individual graphed feedback showing levels of drinking, summary of numbers of days individual drank and approximate financial cost of drinking in the past year. WI with motivational interview – in addition to website-15 minutes in person motivational interview |
| Moore, Soderquist, and Werch (2005) | N = 116 college students (18–25 years) | Convenience sample from three college courses | South Eastern US university | RCT; four weekly newsletters identical in appearance for web and print versions; five main components; question challenging alcohol-expectancy belief, definitions of a standard drink and binge drinking; web version provided links to alcohol-related info, services at the university, and other informational and interactive alcohol websites |
| Neighbors, Lee, Lewis, Fossos, and Walter (2009) | N = 295 college students, 21 + | Email and postal mail invitations | Two Northwestern universities | RCT; two days and day before 21st birthday – email sent w/ link to a birthday card w/ humorous msgs about moderation on 21st birthdays; personalized feedback about drinking intentions and expectations for their upcoming 21st birthday; printable BAC chart based on gender and weight; protective behavior strategy |
| Weight loss | ||||
| Gold, Burke, Pintauro, Buzzell, and Harvey-Perino (2007) | N = 124 overweight and obese adults 18 years and older | Advertisements in local newspaper | Burlington, VT | RCT; VTrim six month online therapist-led weight maintenance program; specific behavior modification lessons featured ea. week; self-reported weight ea. week; hr long weekly online chat-trained therapist; weekly feedback to homework emailed-trained therapist; online journal used to track energy intake and feedback on entries-therapists |
| Jones et al. (2008) | N = 105 male and female high school students | Flyers and presentation in health education and physical education classes, student rallies, and parents back to school night | Boise, ID and Hayward, CA | RCT; StudentBodies2-BED 16 week; weekly new topic on healthy eating, PA, binge eating and weight loss/maintenance; interactive components – self-monitoring journals for dietary intake, PA weight and person thoughts. Group discussion w/ research assistant; parents handbook; weekly letters and motivational msgs |
| Rothert et al. (2006) | N = 2862 overweight and obese persons (BMI 27–40 kg/m2) | Kaiser members informed by clinicians, member newsletters, flyers, and letters sent to those in diabetes and CVD registries | Kaiser Permanente Regions Georgia, Mid-Atlantic States, Northwest and Ohio (health care setting) | RCT; tailored expert system condition used balance – 6 week self-help program; opportunity to enroll “buddy” who were sent email messages and encouraged to provide informal support; materials consisted of an initial guide followed by tailored action plan delivered at 1, 3, and 6 weeks into prog. |
| Tate, Jackvony, and Wing (2006) | N = 192 obese or overweight adults | Advertisements in local newspapers; incentives − $25.00 and $50.00 paid for three- and six-months follow-up | N/A | RCT; one face-to face session w/ behavioral weight-loss recommendations for diet, exercise and behavior changes; meal replacements for first week and coupon given to offset cost; website access to electronic diary and message board; weekly feedback from preprogrammed computer or via email from weight-loss counselor in person |
| Webber, Tate, and Bowling (2008) | N = 66 women with BMI between 25 and 40 | Newspaper ads, telephone screening, and information session; incentives − $40 for attending follow-up session | N/A | RCT; one face-to-face session, calorie book and self-monitoring diaries; 16 week behavioral weight-loss prog. w/ weekly lessons and web links to tips and related sites. Enhanced group had weekly one hour online chat group sessions led by a doctoral student |
| Williamson et al. (2005) | N = 57 overweight AA girls with at least one obese parent | Media and advertising campaign, including talks in community | N/A | RCT, culturally specific, counselor-conducted four face-to-face sessions with parent and adolescent, online correspondence w/ both arms. IG – behavioral treatment and contracting. CG – received nutrition education |
| Turner-McGrievy and Tate (2013) | N = 96 overweight and obese men and women | Listservs, television advertisements; participants received a $20 incentive for completing all three parts and an additional $20 for the completion of the six-month assessment activities | N/A | RCT; participants were assigned to each group; each group received podcasts (15-minutes two times/week for three months; five-minutes two times/week for 3–6 months); the IG was required to download a PA monitoring application and Twitter to their phone and log on daily; a weight-loss counselor posted two messages a day to reinforce the podcasts and stimulate discussions |
| PA and nutrition | ||||
| Bosak, Yates, and Pozehl (2009) | N = 22 metabolic syndrome adults | Enrolled active patients in university cardiology lipid clinic database | N/A | Two-group pre- and post-test; six weeks w/ instruction and feedback – four sources of efficacy info; multi-component self-efficacy strategies: education, behavior-specific goal-setting and self-efficacy strategies; knowledge tests, new content on website each week, including links for evidence-based websites, daily entry of PA, tips 3×/week, goals reviewed weekly |
| Carr et al. (2008) | N = 32 men and women, 21–65 years | Passive recruitment via advertisements and email solicitations from predominantly rural regions | Wyoming and Northern Colorado | RCT; ALED-I 16 week internet prog. supervised by licensed program admin, w/ copy of complementary workbook, self-paced prog., behavior modification issued, “check in” to review and complete “Ready Set Go” lessons, monitor sedentary activities, substitute alternatives and match with virtual participants with same level of readiness to change, completion of “my journal” and five-question quiz |
| Cavallo et al. (2012) | N = 134 female undergraduate students | Participants were directed to an online screener via print and electronic communications (email, Facebook and Twitter); $30 incentive for completing all study parts | Large southeastern public university, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill | RCT; online social networking and self-monitoring of PA; INSHAPE website and a Facebook group; a moderator was used to encourage participation and to answer questions from participants |
| Dunton and Robertson (2008) | N = 156 ethnically diverse adult females | Posters and fliers used at local health centers and clinics; $25 for completing surveys | Northern and Southern California | Randomized trial; Women's Fitness Planner-produced individualized PA feedback; 10 weekly emails with links to web page with an interactive tailoring tool to promote PA |
| Irvine, Gelatt, Seeley, Macfarlane, and Gau (2013) | N = 368 sedentary men and women (mean age 60) | A mixture of online recruitment strategies (listservs, advertising on a website for seniors), flyers, newsletters and announcements to senior service agencies | Online PA intervention; N/A | RCT; weekly 10–15 minutes sessions for 12 weeks. Active After 55: text and video messages integrated with interactive values clarification and goal-setting activities. Include personal activity plan, the health value exercise, overcome obstacles, track progress, stay motivated, safety tips, tip sheets, etc. A narrator and personal coach presented video-based education content |
| Marcus et al. (2007) | N = 249 healthy sedentary (< 90 minutes PA/week) adults | Primarily newspaper ads; $10 monthly | Providence and Pittsburgh | Two-site – three arms randomized trial – (1) Motivationally tailored Internet: email prompts, daily online logging. (2) Motivationally tailored print: mailed prompts, pencil and paper logs calendar logs. (3) Standard Internet: PA logs at same intervals as other two groups |
| Ornes and Ransdell (2007) | N = 112 college aged women | Newspaper ads, posters and researcher visits to college classrooms | Public university in the South west | RCT; four weeks; delivered through WebCT with nine modules, including using pedometer, monitoring progress, recording steps; several identifying barriers and strategies to overcome them; links to maps and incorporated state supported PA site |
| Cook, Billings, Hersch, Back, and Hendrickson (2007) | N = 419 employees of a human resources company | Email letter from management, posters in offices; incentive $50.00 and $500.00 raffle prize | Atlanta, GA; Minneapolis, MN; Fountain Valley, CA | RCT; web-based group and print group. Health connections multimedia program on nutrition/weight management, stress reduction and fitness/ PA |
| Franko et al. (2008) | N = 476 university students, 18–24 years | Sign-up tables in university high-traffic areas | Northeastern University, College of Charleston, Florida Atlantic University, University of Missouri – St Louis and Columbia campuses, Florida International University | Randomized trial; MyStudentBody – three info links – (1) (Ask the Expert, student voices, College News). (2) Rate Myself assessment. (3) Main topic pages (Nutrition 101, Eating on the run, weighing in) first web session = 45 minutes (first meeting). Two weeks later − 1.5 hour meeting, second 45 minute web session completed. Three weeks after post-test EG II remotely log onto website for ∼45 minutes and visited main topic pages-text-based and audio information, interactive activities and goal-setting areas |
| Frenn et al. (2005) | N = 178 seventh graders | Requested participation from students in six classes | Midwestern urban public school | Quasi-experimental; eight session blackboard delivered, with four 2–3 minute videos used in science class used to raise awareness and consciousness of certain healthy behavior; computer-generated tailored feedback for PA and dietary fat; workbook for recording notes and evaluating sessions and Internet sites; each session lasted a class period |
| Thompson et al. (2008) | N = 80 (8–10-year-old AA girls) | Broadcast and non-broadcast methods; weekly incentive of $5 | Houston, TX | RCT; eight week use of website with role modeling, comics, problem-solving and goal setting. Data collection occurred on website |
| Winnett et al. (2007) | N = 1071, 14 churches | Pulpit announcements, flyers, posters, church bulletins and “kick off” luncheons; Incentives – 20.00 at pre-test, 30.00 at post-test, and $40.00 at follow-up | Baptist or South Methodist Churches in the Southwest Virginia | GRT; GTH – 12 weekly modules targeting decreasing dietary fat, increasing fiber and FV. Support for IG from pulpits and church bulletins |
| Milan and White (2010) | N = 408 female college students, 18–29 years old | Advertisement of online nutritional study w/ monetary incentive through university email system; incentive = $30 | University of Maine | GRT; stage-tailored education on folic acid MV intake for six weeks. Five education modules corresponding to stage of readiness for meeting folic acid intake recommended – four web pages each; four tailored email msgs (1/week) |
| Thompson et al. (2009) | N = 473 boy scouts (10–14-year-olds | Presentations to Houston Boy Scouts of America and troop leaders | Houston, TX | RCT; “5-a-Day Achievement Badge program”: 55 minutes of 9 weekly programming led by trained staff 30 minutes (in troop) and 25 minutes Internet. In-troop recipe preparation and tasting, recipe booklet; website used to set and report goals and goal-attainment; comic characters; problem-solving poll |
| HIV and chronic diseases | ||||
| Bowen, Keith, and Mark (2007) | N = 90 MSM who live in a rural area | Face-to-face, Internet banners; gift certificates of ($10, $15, and $20 given after each of three assessments) | N/A | RCT; two modules include a conversation between an HIV-negative man and an HIV-positive man with interactive graphics |
| Bull, Vallejos, Levine, and Ortiz (2008) | N = 2623 online, N = 1444 clinic-based, 18–24 years | Posted 3.5 million banner ads online and clinics; incentives $25–$35 upon completion | Clinic sample Colorado Internet sample, 18–24-year-olds | Quasi-experimental; stories 60–90 second-long delivered with voice and music; pictures matched to gender, race/ethnicity; participants respond to HIV risk-related questions in five modules |
| Carpenter, Stoner, Mikko, Dhanak, and Parson (2009) | N = 112 MSM, 18–39 years old, engaged in unprotected sex w/ a man w/n the last three months | Banner advertisement posted on same-sex community websites, profiles of the study listed on three popular social networking websites commonly visited by minorities; incentives $35 after tutorials; $50 after post-test | N/A | Randomized; intervention website – seven motivational, informational and skills training modules. Interactive assessment of HIV risk factors, w/ targeted feedback, mini-assessments gauging readiness to change risky behaviors, motivational exercises and communication skills training |
| Bull, Levine, Black, Schmiege, and Santelli (2012) | N = 1578 AA and Hispanic/Latino youth | Research assistants were approached directly or waited for people to approach a table; recruited online; ads were submitted to newspapers in geographic areas with high rates of STIs; recruited participants then were incentivized to recruit up to three friends | Denver, CO and a college community in Louisiana | Cluster RCT; participants were randomly assigned to the intervention or CG; “18–24 News” was the control Facebook page that shared interesting news; “Just/Us” was the intervention Facebook page that was developed to deliver information on sexuality; facilitators would update the pages daily |
| Bond et al. (2007) | N = 62 adults, 60 years and older with diabetes | University of Washington Diabetes Center, Puget sound health system and local diabetes fairs | Seattle | RCT; website emphasizing goal-setting and problem-solving skills were emphasized. Disease management, diet and exercise. CG received standard diabetes care |
| Chan and Vernon (2008) | N = 97, aged 49 and older | Clinic site recruitment during clinic visit over consecutive 19 month period; incentive for completion was $55.00 | Texas | RCT; NetLET: personalized e-mail from primary care physician as reminder for screening and last test result, link to secure web page w/ more information about CRCS, video decision aid about CRCS and FOBT and links to websites about CRCS from CDC, the Mayo Clinic and Medline Plus. FOBT kit was mailed to group |
| Joseph et al. (2007) | N = 314 urban AA 9th to 11th grade students | Informed all 9th to 11th grade students’ caregivers about respiratory health survey administration in English class | Six public high schools: Detroit | RCT; Puff City – four consecutive educational computer sessions that make use of normative and positive feedback (compared with last session); voiced over msgs to accommodate low literacy |
| Smith, Egbert, Dellman-Jenkins, and Nanna (2012) | N = 38 care givers and stroke survivors from the USA | Put out national notices on websites and listserv announcements for key organizations | Nationally in the USA | RCT; IG: five components that were designed to provide care givers with knowledge, resources, and skills to help them reduce their distress and provide the best care to the stroke survivors: control: had access to the Resource Room only, was able to watch one video that described the Resource Room; provided a weekly care giving tip online |
Notes: GRT, group randomized trial; prog., program; MV, multivitamin; BAC, blood alcohol concentration; CHESS SCRP, comprehensive health enhancement support system for smoking cessation and relapse prevention; M-PASS, Michigan prevention and alcohol safety for students; BMI, body mass index; ALED-I, active living every day; GTH, guide to health; STIs, sexually transmitted infections; CRCS, colon cancer screenings.