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(a) Schematic illustration of the KPFM measurement setup. The contact potential difference (CPD) is determined by compensating the electrostatic forces between the tip and sample where nc MeOx stands for nanocrystalline metal oxide. (b) HR-SEM images of the hole-conductor-free nc-Al2O3/MAPbI3 perovskite solar cell.(c) Current-voltage curves of the studied solar cells and (d) the corresponding IPCE spectra.
