Table 2.

Overview of framing main effects in six empirical message framing studies.

Study	Health topic	Operationalisation of risk	Gain frame		n	Loss frame		N	Test statistics
			M	SD		M	SD
Study 1	Skin cancer protection	Possibility of negative outcomes	4.10	1.67	143	4.12	1.78	139	F (1,274) = 0.019, p = .89, ηp2 = .00
Study 2	Hepatitis B vaccination	Possibility of negative outcomes	−0.01	1.02	276	0.06	0.97	266	F (1,534) = 1.83; p = .18, ηp2 = .00
Study 3	Physical activity	Possibility of negative outcomes	5.76	0.06	332	5.73	0.06	326	F (1,654) = 0.07, p = .80, ηp2 = .00
Study 4	Breast self-examination	Possibility of negative outcomes	4.77	1.38	350	4.86	1.41	335	F (1,681) = 0.29, p = .59, ηp2 = .00
Study 5	Vaccination	Outcome uncertainty	2.43	1.26	40	3.25	2.00	40	F (1,76) = 5.20, p = .03, ηp2 = .06
Study 6	Vaccination	Outcome uncertainty + possibility of negative outcomes	4.68	1.57	62	4.63	1.56	63	F (1,121) = 0.02, p = .90, ηp2 = .00