Table 2.

Description of the study design, media characters used, and results of experimental studies included in the systematic review, 2004–2014

Author year published	Study design	Media characters used	Results
de Droog et al., 2011 (86) Netherlands	Randomized controlled trial A 4-point scale was used to test nine experimental conditions among children (n = 216; 4–6 years) asked to select chopped bananas versus banana candy that had either one of two familiar media characters versus an unfamiliar character (monkey) versus no character. ANOVA was used to measure significance for three cognitive outcomes: character preference snack preference purchase request	Nickelodeon's Dora the Explorer for girls and SpongeBob SquarePants for boys were the familiar characters used	Both familiar and unfamiliar cartoon media characters increased young children's preference and purchase request for fruit compared with candy. Preschool children's preference for and purchase request for fruit did not differ between a familiar versus unfamiliar character. No character reduced preference for and purchase request for fruit. No difference was observed between boys and girls.
de Droog et al., 2012 (87) Netherlands	Within subjects repeated measure design Children (n = 166; 4–6 years) were exposed to five different, randomly selected character–product picture combinations: familiar character versus unfamiliar character and a carrot conceptually and perceptually congruent character (orange rabbit and a carrot) conceptually congruent (gray rabbit and a carrot) perceptually congruent (orange rhino and a carrot) incongruent (gray rhino and a carrot) ANOVA was used to measure the significance for three cognitive outcomes: Familiar character recognition Character and product preference Character preference (familiar versus unfamiliar)	Nickelodeon's Dora the Explorer and Diego were the familiar characters used	91% of the children were able to identify Dora and Diego. Children preferred a familiar character and conceptually congruent character–product pair (e.g. gray rabbit and a carrot) linked to a product by a story compared with an incongruent character–product pair (e.g. gray rhino and a carrot). Children preferred a familiar character–product combination (Dora or Diego and a carrot) more than an unfamiliar character–product combination (rabbit or rhino and a carrot).
Keller et al., 2012 (88) USA	Randomized controlled trial × 7 weeks This study was one of three branding experiments that involved parents and their children (n = 16; 4–5 years). Parents in the intervention group offered their child a colourful package of fresh fruits and vegetables + familiar character + premium (redeemable sticker for a prize) + nutritional counselling versus parents in the control group who offered their child fruit and vegetables in a plain package. ANOVA was used to measure two outcomes: food intake body mass index	Sesame Workshop's Elmo was the familiar characters used	Familiar character branding using Elmo significantly increased children's fruit and vegetable intake compared with a control group that showed no change. Children in the intervention group decreased their BMI z-score compared with children in the control group who increased their BMI z-score.
Kotler et al., 2012 (89) USA	Randomized controlled trial Study 1 assessed the effect of branding on children (n = 343; 2–6 years) using three familiar cartoon media characters (Elmo, Bert and Ernie) versus three unfamiliar cartoon anthropomorphic characters (e.g. dinosaur) versus no character on children's food preference by selecting one out of nine sets of selected food photos for zucchini versus celery, mushrooms versus peas, grapes versus bananas, donut versus Cheerios, potato chips versus apple, chocolate versus broccoli, star fruit versus melon, cherry tomato versus cauliflower, and Saltines versus pumpernickel crackers. A third of the children were asked to select their favourite foods from the pairs with no characters (control group); a third selected their preferred food with a Sesame character on targeted foods and a third selected their preferred food with an unknown character (intervention groups). Study 2 assessed the effect of branding on children (n = 207; 3–6 years) using Elmo versus an unknown character versus no character on their willingness to taste and eat food (outcome = food intake) via selected photos for three sets of food.	Sesame Workshop's Elmo, Grover and Oscar were the familiar characters used	Branding with a familiar character increased children's preference for and willingness to taste and eat both healthy and unhealthy foods. Branding was strong when a familiar character was used on an unhealthy branded snack food compared with an unfamiliar character on a healthy branded snack food versus no character. Children were more willing to try a healthy food (fruit or vegetable) with a favourite brand character compared with an unknown character. When a healthy food branded by a popular character competed against a branded unhealthy food, the popular character did not increase children's preference for the healthy food. When two foods in the same category (i.e. 2 vegetables, 2 fruits or 2 grains) competed against each other, character branding strongly influenced children's food choice compared with no character.
Lapierre et al., 2011 (90) USA	Between-subjects study design A 5-point smile scale was used to test the preference of children (n = 80; 4–6 years) for ready-to-eat cereals under four conditions: healthy bits cereal versus sugar bits cereal character preference (penguin versus no character)	Warner Brothers Entertainment's Mumble and Gloria from the movie, Happy Feet, were the familiar cartoon media characters used	Children who saw a popular media character on the box preferred the cereal with the character versus no character. Children who were told the cereal was called Healthy Bits liked the taste more than children who were told it was called Sugar Bits. Children preferred the character on Sugar Bits compared with Healthy Bits suggesting that the character is a more powerful influence than the nutritional merits of the cereal.
Letona et al., 2014 (95) Guatemala	Between-subjects study design Three cartoon media characters were used to assess three outcomes for children (n = 121; 4–11 years) including: recognition of popular characters taste preference and snack preference for three foods: potato chips, crackers and baby carrots.	Nickelodeon's SpongeBob SquarePants, Warner Brothers Entertainment's Pink Panther and El Chavo were the familiar characters used	Children showed a high recognition of familiar media characters (92–98%). The use of a familiar licensed character on food packaging increased children's taste and snack preferences. Younger children (4–6 years) were more likely to prefer a food with a licensed media character compared with older children (7–11 years).
Neeley & Schumann, 2004 (91) USA	Post-test, between-subjects factorial designs Study 1 exposed children (n = 66; 2–5 years) to an animated mock commercial showing an unfamiliar cartoon character paired with a product (mouse eating cheese). The commercial was embedded into a television programme and shown three times to children. Other commercials for food ads (e.g. Cheerios, Cap'n Crunch and a toy tea set) were also shown to children. Each child was randomly assigned to the experimental or control group. Children in the experimental group were shown three sets of flashcards and pointed to the animal they saw in the commercial and the food that the animal was eating. Statistical tests were used to measure seven outcomes: Character versus brand recognition (to assess attention to commercial) Character and brand association Character and product recall Character preference Food preference (fruit versus chips or cookie) Purchase request (intention to eat) Food choice Study 2 used statistical tests to examine the significant influence of auditory messages on children (n = 37; 2–5 years) who were either exposed to two character voices or no voices in commercials to assess their attention and retention of information from an animated commercial for fruit snacks.	A cartoon mouse was the non-celebrity character used	Children had a higher recall for the animated mouse (78%) compared with fewer children (52%) who recalled the food product (cheese) advertised. Children's exposure to the cartoon mouse was statistically significant only for the food product preference (cheese) but not the other variables. Children's exposure to auditory messages with animated characters (bear and dog) did not positively influence the seven variables measured. Children's attention, recognition and preference for cartoon characters was not significantly related to high levels of food product preference, intention to eat, and food product choice.
Roberto et al., 2010 (92) USA	Between-subjects study design Children (n = 40; 4–6 years) were exposed to three study foods (e.g. graham crackers, gummy fruit snacks and baby carrots) that were branded with three different popular licensed cartoon media characters to examine three outcomes: character recognition character influence on taste preference character influence on food choice. A 5-point Likert scale was used to assess children's character recognition. Statistical tests were used to determine children's taste preference versus snack choice.	Warner Brothers Entertainment's Scooby Doo, Nickelodeon's Dora the Explorer and DreamWorks Animation, SKG's Shrek were the familiar characters used	Children's recognition of popular characters ranged from 60 to 90%. A majority of children preferred the taste of foods and selected snacks with a licensed character versus no character, especially for gummy fruit candy and graham crackers compared with baby carrots. No differences were observed based on children's age, ethnicity or race and sex.
Smits & Vanderbosch, 2012 (94) Belgium	Between-subjects study design Baseline measures were obtained for children (n = 57; 6–7 years) on a 5-point appetite scale and 10-point scale for children's self-reported frequency of intake and frequency of parental purchase of grapes, apples, chocolate and cookies. A questionnaire was used to assess children's reported intended frequency of intake, appetite for and purchase request for each food that was endorsed either by a familiar celebrity media character (Kabouter Plop gnome) or an unknown gnome. Three outcomes were measured: increased appetite intent to consume purchase request	Studio 100's Kabouter Plop was the familiar media character used	Children's self-reported appetite, intention to consume and frequency of parental purchase requests increased when either a familiar media character gnome or an unfamiliar gnome was used on foods. The familiar media character gnome had a stronger effect on the three outcomes measured compared with the unknown gnome, especially for chocolate. The unfamiliar gnome had a smaller positive effect on the three outcomes measured compared with baseline.
Ülger, 2009 (93) Turkey	Randomized controlled trial Children (n = 144; 6 years) in the experimental group were shown a 50-minute cartoon show on a compact disc with Warner Brothers' Looney Tunes cartoon characters (e.g. Bugs Bunny) that showed two embedded commercials for a chocolate wafer (product 1) (experimental group) compared with children who watched the cartoon without the commercials (control group). Two outcomes were measured: message recall product choice Children in the experimental group described the advertising content of the commercials. Chi-squared test was used to assess one of two food products that was most appealing to children: either the chocolate wafer shown on the commercials (product 1) or a chocolate wafer with an appealing package branded with one of five Walt Disney characters (product 2) that was not shown in the commercial.	Five media characters of The Walt Disney Company were used on the child-appealing food package: Donald Duck, Tina Russo Duck, Mickey and Minnie Mouse and Goofy Five media characters of Warner Brothers Entertainment were shown in the 50-min cartoon programme with embedded commercials: Bugs Bunny, Tom and Jerry, Tweety and the Tasmanian Devil	Children who watched the cartoon show with the embedded commercials demonstrated good recall of the content of the chocolate wafer advertisements. Children who viewed the cartoon show with or without the embedded commercials chose the chocolate wafer with the packaging branded with the Walt Disney characters (74%) rather than the wafer advertised in the cartoon programme with the Warner Brothers media characters (26%) No significant differences were observed for product choices made by boys versus girls.
Wansink et al., 2012 (96) USA	Cross-over study design Over the course of five days, children (n = 208; 8–11 years) from seven schools were given an apple or cookie without a branded character (days 1 and 5). Children were given a choice of an apple and cookie branded with Elmo (day 2). Children were given a choice of an apple branded with Elmo and an unbranded cookie (day 3). Children were given a choice of an unbranded cookie and an unknown cartoon character (day 4). Chi-squared test was used to assess the statistical significance for two behavioural outcomes: food choice food intake	Sesame Workshop's Elmo was the familiar characters used	Given a choice between the unbranded apple and cookie, about 90% of children choice the cookie. Children were more likely to choose an apple branded with an Elmo sticker compared with the pre-test control. A branded mascot sticker with Elmo had no effect on children's cookie consumption.

ANOVA, analysis of variance; BMI, body mass index.