Table 3.

Changes in blood or plasma in experimental animals after blast.

Species	Blast exposure	Findings	Reference
Rat	Shock tube (358 kPa, duration 10 ms), head only exposure with body armor protection	GFAP, neuron specific enolase (NSE), and UCH-L1 increased in blood	(64)
Pig	Shock tube, 20–40 psi	Increased serum levels of S100B, MBP, NSE, and NF-H 6 h to 2 weeks following injury	(116)
Rat	Shock tube, 20.6 psi whole body exposure combined with 1 week stress (predator scent exposure combined with unpredictable stress)	2 months after blast/stress exposure elevated serum levels of cortisol, creatine kinase-BB, neurofilament-H (NF-H), neuron specific enolase (NSE), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), and vascular endothelial cell growth factor (VEGF).	(43)
Rat	Shock tube, 20.63 psi	51 days post-blast exposure, elevated CRP, MCP-1, cortisol, NSE, neurofilament-H, tau, claudin 5, and S100β in serum, elevations normalized by daily treatment with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug minocycline for four consecutive days after blast exposure	(69)
Rat	Shock tube, 230–380 kPa on axis composite blast (blast wave plus pressure jet, duration 3–5 ms) or off axis (blast wave only, duration 50–100 μs) exposures	Increased serum GFAP 1–7 days after primary and composite blast, markers of vascular/endothelial inflammation integrin α/β, soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1, and L-selectin increased in serum within 6 h after primary and composite blast persisting for 7 days, systemic IL-1, IL-10, and fractalkine raised predominantly after primary blast exposure	(48)
Rat	Shock tube, one or five 138 kPa exposures	Serum VEGF, NSE, neurofilament H, and GFAP elevated in single and multiply injured animals at 22 days post-exposure	(70)
Rat	Shock tube, 117 kPa, duration 7.5 ms	Decreased IL-1a at 3 h, decreased macrophage colony stimulating factor (m-CSF) at 24 h, increased EPO at 48 h, decreased IL-1a, IL-1ss, IL-6, IL-10, EPO, and increased VEGF and m-CSF at 72 h, no changes in TNF-α at any time point	(117)
Rat	Shock tube 120 kPa, positive pressure duration ~3 ms	Plasma C5b-9 elevated by ELISA at 3 h and 24 h after blast but not 72 to 168 h	(49)
Rat	Shock tube, 138 kPa, single or repeated (5 total administered on consecutive days)	Changes in arterial oxygen saturation levels and heart rates of single-injured and multiply injured rats throughout observation period of 42 days, elevation of plasma biomarkers at 42 days (HNE, HIF-1α, ceruloplasmin, VEGF, von Willebrand factor, neurofilament H, GFAP, myelin basic protein, MMP-8, formyl peptide receptor 1, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, and chemokine receptor 5) in one or more groups	(118)
Mouse	Shock tube, single 10, 15, or 21 psi exposures, repeat 3 × 21 psi delivered with 1–30 min intervals between exposures, whole body or head restricted exposure with a vest covering whole body except the head	Plasma aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase, and creatine kinase increased as early as 1 h after blast exposure remaining elevated up to 6 h in an overpressure dose-dependent manner, returning close to normal levels at 24 h, head-only blast exposure with body protection showed no increase in the enzyme activities.	(104)
Mouse	Shock tube, 20.6 psi three times with 1–30 min intervals between exposures	Increased platelet activation at 4 h after repeated blast exposures, platelet serotonin decreased at 4 h after blast with a concurrent increase in plasma serotonin levels, blood and plasma myeloperoxidase enzyme activity and expression increased in repeated blast exposed mice at multiple time-points	(53)
Rat	Head-directed blast with body armor delivered as (1) moderate “composite” blast with strong head acceleration or (2) moderate primary blast, without head acceleration, 230–380 kPa	Thrombin generation in blood increased in both forms of blast, integrin alpha/beta and sICAM-1 levels elevated after both composite and primary blast at 6 h, 1 d, and 7 d, sE-selectin exhibited near normal levels after composite blast but increased at 7 d after primary blast, MMP-2, MMP-8, and MMP-13 rose slightly after composite blast and increased two-to-fourfold after primary blast	(105)
Rat	Shock tube, single 120 kPa whole body exposure	Increased IL-1β, erythropoietin, TNF-α, and IL-10 in the serum at 3 h, reaching peak at 24 h and returning to normal at 48 h	(58)
Rat	Shock tube, five exposures administered as progressively higher exposures from 15.54–19.41 psi (107.14–133.83 kPa, durations 9.01–10.6 ms) at rate of one per 30 min with chest protection	Two days post-exposure elevation in plasma of 4-HNE, HIF-1α, ceruloplasmin, VEGF, von Willebrand factor, aquaporin 1 and 4, fetal liver kinase 1 (FLK1/VEGF receptor 2), claudin 5, integrin α 6, TIMP1, TIMP4, Gal-1, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, MIP1, chemokine receptor 5, MCP1, cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant 1 (CINC1), fibrinogen, CRP, N-formyl peptide receptor, GFAP, OX44, S100β, neuron-specific enolase, neurofilament H, creatine kinase-brain type, and tau	(79)
Rat	Exposure to pentaerythritol tetranitrate explosive, (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene equivalent = 15.6 mg, “moderate” blast or = 27.0 mg “severe” blast) using a spherical exploder fixed over the head	After either moderate or severe injury serum levels of tau, GFAP and TNF-α increased at 8 h, reaching peak at 24 h and remaining elevated at six days (last time-point tested), serum malondialdehyde levels increased at 3 and 6 days	(106)