Table 3. Regression Results for Average Antibiotic Resistance.
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Independent Variables | OLS | OLS | OLS | OLS | FE | FE | SGMM | SGMM | SGMM |
| ABU | 0.51(0.12) *** | 0.36(0.09) *** | 0.29(0.09) *** | 0.25(0.14)* | 0.16(0.11) | 0.12(0.11) | 0.08(0.32) | 0.32(0.07) *** | 0.07(0.11) |
| GOV | -0.56(0.07) *** | -0.37(0.10) *** | -0.25(0.12)** | -0.22(0.12) * | -0.55(0.11) *** | -0.65(0.24) *** | |||
| PHE | 0.20 (0.06) *** | -0.08(0.16) | 0.22(0.07) *** | ||||||
| PGDP | -0.17(0.08)** | -0.02(0.45) | 0.06(0.16) | ||||||
| TED | -0.11(0.04) *** | -0.01(0.18) | -0.07(0.07) | ||||||
| AGR | 0.13(0.17) | -0.54(0.54) | -0.02(0.15) | ||||||
| ABRt-2 | 0.31(0.10) *** | 0.18(0.14) | 0.15(0.16) | ||||||
| Countries | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 28 |
| Observations | 242 | 242 | 242 | 242 | 242 | 242 | 99 | 99 | 99 |
| T.E included | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| p-value of ‘ABU = -Cor’ | 0.15 | 0.61 | 0.65 | 0.61 | 0.08 | <0.01 | |||
| Adjusted R2 | 0.33 | 0.63 | 0.70 | 0.80 | 0.81 | 0.81 | |||
| R2(within) | 0.23 | 0.27 | 0.28 | ||||||
| Instruments | 28 | 31 | 35 | ||||||
| Sargan test p-value | 0.21 | 0.58 | 0.71 | ||||||
| Hansen J test p-value | 0.47 | 0.60 | 0.79 | ||||||
| AR(2) test p-value | 0.01 | 0.50 | 0.56 | ||||||
| Wald chi-sq statistic | 74.36 | 227.99 | 845.02 | ||||||
| Wald chi-sq p-value | <0.01 | <0.01 | <0.01 |
Notes:
The standardized (beta) regression coefficients are reported in the table. TE refers to the set of time dummy variables i.e. the time effects. The estimated coefficient for the constant term and TE are not reported. ‘ABU = -Cor’ refers to the F test for equality of the magnitude for the coefficient of Antibiotic Usage and Control of Corruption. P value is the probability of obtaining the observed test statistic. We reject the null hypothesis if the p-value is less than the level of statistical significance at which the test is conducted. For Pooled OLS and Fixed Effects regressions, standard errors clustered by countries are reported in parenthesis. Annual observations are used from 1998–2010. The Adjusted R2 value of the regression in Column (1) without including the time effects is 0.28. The R2 in Columns (4), (5) and (6) refers to the coefficient of determination from estimation of the equivalent Least Squares Dummy Variable Model (LSDV).
For System GMM, Windmeijer-Corrected Robust standard errors from the two-step GMM estimation are reported in parenthesis. Observations at 2 year intervals used from 1998–2010. Orthogonal forward deviations are used to purge fixed effects. The main explanatory variables (Antibiotic Usage and Control of Corruption) are treated as endogenous and instrumented by the collapsed matrix of all available lags.
*Significant at the 10% level
**Significant at the 5% level
***Significant at the 1% level