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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2016 Jun 1.
Published in final edited form as: AIDS Care. 2015 Jan 6;27(6):706–715. doi: 10.1080/09540121.2014.996517

Table 4.

Gender differences in the intake of 34 frequently eaten foods and ingredients that contribute to variation in intake of vitamins B, C, E and zinc (Diff = male – female)

Food group Foods/meals Mean intake (servings per day) Univariate Multivariate
Female Male Mean difference p-value Mean difference p-value
Vegetables Pumpkin leaves 0.23 0.17 −0.07 (−0.11 to −0.02) 0.001 −0.04 (−0.1 to 0.02) 0.23
Bitter tomato mixed 0.24 0.2 −0.05 (−0.08 to −0.01) 0.01 −0.07 (−0.11 to 0.02) 0.003
Cowpea leaves 0.15 0.13 −0.02 (−0.05 to 0.01) 0.13 −0.002 (−0.04 to 0.04) 0.93
Chinese cabbage 0.17 0.16 −0.02 (−0.05 to 0.01) 0.24 −0.02 (−0.06 to 0.02) 0.39
Spinach 0.56 0.58 −0.01 (−0.07 to 0.05) 0.71 −0.05 (−0.12 to 0.03) 0.22
Green pepper (ingredient) 0.81 0.66 −0.16 (−0.24 to −0.08) <.0001 −0.18 (--0.29 to −0.07) 0.001
Green pepper salad 0.19 0.18 −0.01 (−0.05 to 0.02) 0.53 −0.02 (−0.08 to 0.03) 0.35
Okra mixed 0.22 0.21 −0.01 (−0.04 to 0.03) 0.71 0.01 (−0.03 to 0.05) 0.72
Cassava leaves 0.13 0.13 0.005 (−0.02 to 0.03) 0.68 −0.002 (−0.03 to 0.02) 0.86
Cabbage 0.11 0.12 0.01 (−0.01 to 0.03) 0.31 0.01 (−0.01 to 0.03) 0.47
Cucumber 0.23 0.24 0.01 (−0.03 to 0.05) 0.66 0.02 (−0.04 to 0.08) 0.53
Cereals Uji (porridge) 0.64 0.46 −0.24 (−0.3 to −0.17) <.0001 −0.2 (−0.29 to −0.11) <.0001
Rice-not pilau 0.66 0.64 −0.03 (−0.08 to 0.02) 0.22 −0.04 (−0.11 to 0.03) 0.28
Stiff porridge (maize ugali) 0.95 0.94 −0.03 (−0.08 to 0.03) 0.35 −0.02 (−0.1 to 0.05) 0.52
Rice -mixed 0.13 0.13 −0.003 (0.02 to 0.84) 0.84 0.01 (−0.02 to 0.05) 0.47
Fruits Avocado 0.18 0.17 −0.01 (−0.05 to 0.02) 0.43 −0.01 (−0.06 to 0.04) 0.65
Orange fruit 0.46 0.5 0.01 (−0.05 to 0.07) 0.73 −0.01 (−0.09 to 0.08) 0.87
Mango 0.27 0.29 0.01 (−0.03 to 0.06) 0.62 0.03 (−0.03 to 0.09) 0.39
Watermelon 0.16 0.17 0.02 (−0.01 to 0.04) 0.25 0.03 (−0.01 to 0.06) 0.16
Papaya 0.25 0.27 0.03 (−0.01 to 0.07) 0.21 0.02 (−0.03 to 0.07) 0.47
Plantain mixed 0.17 0.2 0.03 (0.001 to 0.06) 0.05 0.03 (−0.02 to 0.08) 0.21
Ripe banana 0.46 0.57 0.1 (0.04 to 0.16) 0.001 0.08 (−0.005 to 0.16) 0.06
Tuber Sweet potato alone 0.16 0.15 −0.01 (−0.04 to 0.02) 0.5 −0.02 (−0.06 to 0.01) 0.22
Irish potato chips 0.2 0.25 0.02 (−0.01 to 0.05) 0.2 0.04 (0.001 to 0.08) 0.04
Cassava 0.22 0.26 0.04 (0.01 to 0.07) 0.02 0.02 (−0.02 to 0.07) 0.33
Fish Sardines 0.24 0.23 −0.02 (−0.05 to 0.01) 0.21 −0.03 (−0.07 to 0.01) 0.14
Fresh fish 0.16 0.15 −0.01 (−0.04 to 0.03) 0.61 −0.01 (−0.03 to 0.03) 0.67
Fried fish 0.37 0.41 0.02 (−0.02 to 0.06) 0.31 0.04 (−0.01 to 0.09) 0.11
Meat Chicken 0.13 0.15 0.03 (0.005 to 0.05) 0.02 0.03 (−0.001 to 0.06) 0.06
Beef 0.31 0.41 0.09 (0.05 to 0.13) <.0001 0.09 (0.04 to 0.14) 0.0004
Oils Vegetable oil (ingredient) 1.34 1.3 −0.04 (−0.13 to 0.05) 0.37 −0.04 (−0.16 to −0.09) 0.55
Dairy Cow milk 0.29 0.28 −0.004 (−0.05 to 0.04) 0.85 −0.02 (−0.08 to 0.04) 0.54
Eggs Eggs 0.25 0.25 0.0002 (−0.04 to 0.04) 0.99 0.02 (−0.04 to 0.07) 0.58
Pulses Groundnuts alone 0.16 0.23 0.07 (0.04 to 0.10) <.0001 0.07 (0.03 to 0.11) 0.001

1 Multivariate estimates adjusted for age (<30, 30 – 50 and >50 years), educational attainment (primary/none, secondary, tertiary), occupation (business/professional, skilled formal, skilled informal, unskilled, unemployed), marital status (never married, not currently married and married/cohabiting), household assets (0 – 1, 2 – 3 and 4 – 5), district (Ilala, Kinondoni and Temeke), disclosure of status (yes, no), smoking history (yes, no), social support (never, much less than desired, less than desired, as much as desired), hemoglobin (Greater than 11mg/dl, 8.5 to 11mgdl, less than 8.5mg/dl), WHO clinical stage of HIV infection (1 - 4), amount spent on food (1250 Tsh or less, more than 1250 Tsh), and household size (1 - 4, 5-6, More than 6), body mass index (less than 18.5, 18.5 to 24.99, above 25 kg/m2), mid-upper arm circumference () and season of ART initiation [December – March (long rains), April – May (harvest), June – September (post-harvest) and October – November (short rain)], loss of appetite (yes, no), presence of mouth sores (yes, no) or oral thrush (yes, no) and history of tuberculosis (yes, no)

2 Mean difference and confidence intervals were estimated from linear regression models using female gender as the reference. Difference estimates less than zero mean that intake was greater among females while estimates greater zero suggest that intake was greater among males.