Table 3.

The compounds derived from various sources with their anti-malarial activity, mode of action and estimated concentration.

Fruits or herbs	Compound present	Estimated concentration	Mode of action (anti-malarial activity)	Reference
Apples, oranges, lemons, onions, nuts, garlic, neem leaves	Quercetine (flavonoid)	32 mg/100 g of red onion; Daily intake 12.9 g/day)	Inhibition of heme polymerization by chelating free available hemin for polymerization	(35)
Grapefruit, lime, pomegranate, parsley	Quinine (alkaloids)	~100 mg total alkaloids, including quinine in a cup of traditional quinine bark tea	Blocks malaria from reproducing by binding to the parasite’s DNA Inhibition of hemozoin bio-crystallization, which facilitates the aggregation of cytotoxic heme. Free cytotoxic heme accumulates in the parasites, causing their deaths.	(36, 37)
Strawberry, pomegranates and the best source, red raspberry seeds/red raspberries	Ellagic acid (polyphenol)	50.06 mg/10 gm of strawberry	Inhibition of β-hematin (hemozoin) formation Act on trophozoite and early schizont forms of the parasites. This erythrocytic stage of the malaria life cycle is the most metabolically active phase, with protein, RNA, and DNA synthesis taking place.	(38, 39)
Tomatoes, carrots, pears, coconut, leek, onion, spinach, broccoli, avocado, eggplant, mango, apples, apricot, banana, radish, turmeric, echinacea tea, marshmallow root	Arabinogalactan (polysaccharides)	15–25% in larch	Macrophage activator Support the monocyte production	(40, 41)
Basil oil	Quinones	N/A	Inhibition of parasite mitochondrial electron transport chain and respiratory chain without affecting the host mitochondrial system	(42, 43)
Turmeric	Curcumin (curcuminoid) (natural phenols)	3.14% by weight in pure turmeric powder; Alleppey turmeric: 4–7% curcumin; Madras type: 2% curcumin	Anti-oxidant activity Curcumin induced generation of ROS may lead to histone hypoacetylation and DNA damage that account for the parasiticidal effect of curcumin	(34, 44–51)
Black pepper	Piperine	5–10%	Enhances the bioavailability of curcumin by 2000-fold	(33)
Cinnamon	Cinnamic acid derivatives	0.96–2.91%; 0.87 mg/g	Inhibit the transport of monocarboxylate across erythrocyte and mitochondrial membranes Inhibit parasite growth and they are equally effective at the young (ring) and the mature (trophozoite) stages of parasite development	(52, 53)
Garlic cloves	Allicin, organosulfur compound	1–3% (2.8–7.7 mg/g found in Romanian red)	Inhibits circumsporozoite protein processing and prevents sporozoite invasion of host cells in vitro. In vivo mice injected with allicin had decreased Plasmodium infections compared to controls When sporozoites were treated with allicin before injection into mice, malaria infection was completely prevented Immunomodulatory activities (preferentially enhances pro-inflammatory immune responses)	(54–56)
Fenugreek	In leaves: alkaloids, saponin, tannin like phenolic compounds, flavonoids and steroids	Fenugreek contains 35% alkaloids and 4.8% saponin	Hemozoin inhibitors The alkaloidal, ethanol, and butanol extract of fenugreek has been documented to possess anti-plasmodial activity against in vitro culture of chloroquine sensitive and resistant Plasmodium falciparum Presence of flavonoids and polyphenols has been found to be responsible for powerful anti-oxidant activity Fenugreek seeds also have capacity to increase the immunity power and to fight against the parasites	(57, 58)
Peanuts, grapes, grape juice, berries, e.g., blueberries and black berries	Resveratrol (stilbenoid, a type of natural phenol)	0.01–0.26 mg in peanuts	Treatment of parasite-infected red blood cells with resveratrol significantly reduces their ability to adhere to the body’s cells lining small blood vessels. That reduction in binding to blood vessels is predicted to greatly lessen the probability of developing severe clinical manifestations of malaria, according to the study.	(59)
Ginger	N/A	N/A	Nausea and vomiting are also common symptoms of malaria, which may explain the widespread use of ginger as one component of traditional remedies for malaria It stimulates production of the main anti-oxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase, this detoxification-related enzyme improves the liver function and binds toxins. The compounds of ginger inhibit the malaria parasite.	(60)
Cold-pressed coconut oil, fresh and dried coconut, coconut milk, bitter melon	Lauric acid (Saturated fatty acid) ferulic acid and p-coumaric acid	Pure coconut oil contains about 50% lauric acid	When lauric acid is converted into monolaurin, a monoglyceride compound, which exhibits antiviral, antimicrobial, anti-protozoal, and anti-fungal properties. It acts by disrupting the lipid membranes in organisms like fungus, bacteria, and viruses, thus destroying them Coconut has anti-oxidant compounds	(61, 62)