Table 3.

Summary of the possible mechanisms by which probiotics exert healthy effects.

Mechanisms
(1) By inhibiting the adhesion of pathogens to the epithelium in a nonspecific manner or by competing for specific receptors and nutrients
(2) By producing antimicrobial agents against pathogens
(3) By inducing mucin production in the epithelial cells
(4) By strengthening the mucosal barrier through the regeneration of epithelial cells and reduction of permeability
(5) By modulating the immune system through the antigen-presenting cells
(6) By inducing cytokine production from the epithelial and immune cells, resulting in enhanced cell-mediated immune responses and the activation of cytotoxic T cells, phagocytic cells, and NK cells
(7) By increasing the proliferation of B cells through the induction of cytokines, which travel to secondary lymphatic organs in mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue and differentiate into immunoglobulin-producing plasma cells that may return to gut-associated lymphoid tissue by inducing the production of specific antibodies such as secretory IgA