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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2015 Oct 1.
Published in final edited form as: Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2014 Aug 15;25(5):587–596. doi: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2014.08.002

Figure 3. Mechanisms by which EVs antagonize host cell death pathways.

Figure 3

EVs utilize a variety of diverse mechanisms to alter host cell death signaling which include (1) destruction of Ca2+ gradients by the production of virally-encoded viroporins such as 2B, (2) direct cleavage of pro-apoptotic host cell components by the virally-encoded 2Apro and 3Cpro cysteine proteases, (3) activation of PI3K/Akt signaling pathways, and (4) internalization of TNFR by the virally-encoded 3A protein.