Table 2. Comparisons of stigma and discrimination experienced in communities in the past 12 months among PLHIV with lower and higher levels of mental disorders.
| Stigma and discrimination experiences | Total score of GHQ-12 | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total | ≤ 3 | ≥ 4 | ||
| n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | OR (95% CI) | |
| Excluded from social gatherings or activities | ||||
| No | 936 (93.1) | 592 (94.9) | 341 (90.2) | Ref |
| Yes | 69 (6.9) | 32 (5.1) | 37 (9.8) | 2.0 (1.2–3.3) |
| Excluded from religious activities | ||||
| No | 982 (97.7) | 613 (98.2) | 366 (96.8) | Ref |
| Yes | 23 (2.3) | 11 (1.8) | 12 (3.2) | 1.8 (0.8–4.2) |
| Excluded from family activities (e.g. cooking, eating, sleeping together, etc.) | ||||
| No | 957 (95.2) | 601 (96.3) | 353 (93.4) | Ref |
| Yes | 48 (4.8) | 23 (3.7) | 25 (6.6) | 1.9 (1.1–3.3) |
| Aware of being gossiped about | ||||
| No | 580 (57.7) | 396 (63.5) | 183 (48.4) | Ref |
| Yes | 425 (42.3) | 228 (36.5) | 195 (51.6) | 1.9 (1.4–2.4) |
| Verbally insulted, harassed and/or threatened | ||||
| No | 797 (79.3) | 520 (83.3) | 274 (72.5) | Ref |
| Yes | 208 (20.7) | 104 (16.7) | 104 (27.5) | 1.9 (1.4–2.6) |
| Physically harassed and/or threatened | ||||
| No | 925 (92.0) | 595 (95.4) | 327 (86.5) | Ref |
| Yes | 80 (8.0) | 29 (4.6) | 51 (13.5) | 3.2 (2.0–5.1) |
| Physically assaulted | ||||
| No | 984 (97.9) | 615 (98.6) | 366 (96.8) | Ref |
| Yes | 21 (2.1) | 9 (1.4) | 12 (3.2) | 2.2 (0.9–5.4) |
| Subjected to psychological pressure by your husband/wife or partner | ||||
| No | 883 (87.9) | 578 (92.6) | 302 (79.9) | Ref |
| Yes | 122 (12.1) | 46 (7.4) | 76 (20.1) | 3.2 (2.1–4.7) |
| Experienced sexual rejection as a result of HIV positive status | ||||
| No | 931 (92.6) | 593 (95.0) | 335 (88.6) | Ref |
| Yes | 74 (7.4) | 31 (5.0) | 43 (11.4) | 2.5 (4.5–4.0) |
| Discriminated against by other PLHIV | ||||
| No | 922 (91.8) | 576 (92.3) | 343 (91.0) | Ref |
| Yes | 82 (8.2) | 48 (7.7) | 34 (9.0) | 1.2 (0.8–1.9) |
| Members of household experienced discrimination as a result of HIV status | ||||
| No | 909 (90.6) | 575 (92.4) | 331 (87.6) | Ref |
| Yes | 94 (9.4) | 47 (7.6) | 47 (12.4) | 1.7 (1.1–2.7) |
| Forced to change your place of residence or unable to rent accommodation | ||||
| No | 973 (96.8) | 610 (97.8) | 360 (95.2) | Ref |
| Yes | 32 (3.2) | 14 (2.2) | 18 (4.8) | 2.2 (1.1–4.4) |
| Lost a job or another source of income because of HIV status | ||||
| No | 873 (87.0) | 560 (89.7) | 310 (82.2) | Ref |
| Yes | 131 (13.0) | 64 (10.3) | 67 (17.8) | 1.9 (1.3–2.7) |
| Refused employment or a work opportunity because of HIV status | ||||
| No | 872 (86.8) | 569 (91.2) | 300 (79.4) | Ref |
| Yes | 133 (13.2) | 55 (8.8) | 78 (20.6) | 2.7 (1.9–3.9) |
| Nature of work been changed, or been refused promotion as a result of HIV status | ||||
| No | 872 (86.8) | 564 (90.4) | 305 (80.7) | Ref |
| Yes | 133 (13.2) | 60 (9.6) | 73 (19.3) | 2.3 (1.6–3.3) |
| Dismissed or prevented from attending an educational institution because of HIV | ||||
| No | 891 (88.7) | 576 (92.3) | 312 (82.5) | Ref |
| Yes | 114 (11.3) | 48 (7.7) | 66 (17.5) | 2.5 (1.7–3.8) |
| Your child had been prevented from attending school because of your HIV status | ||||
| No | 954 (95.0) | 603 (96.6) | 348 (92.3) | Ref |
| Yes | 50 (5.0) | 21 (3.4) | 29 (7.7) | 2.4 (1.3–4.3) |
| Denied health services because of HIV status | ||||
| No | 996 (99.2) | 622 (99.7) | 371 (98.4) | Ref |
| Yes | 8 (0.8) | 2 (0.3) | 6 (1.6) | 5.0 (1.1–25.0) |
Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; GHQ, general health questionnaire; OR, odds ratio; PLHIV, people living with HIV.
* Chi-square test or Fisher’s Exact test was used as appropriate for the comparisons.