Table 1.

Clinical trials of opioid receptor-based cardioprotective interventions

Putative selectivity	Agent	Treatment/Cohort	Outcome measures	Effect	Study
Non-selective	Morphine versus fentanyl	Pretreatment, on-pump CAB	Post-operative contractile function/EF	Improved with morphine (not fentanyl)	Murphy et al., 2006
	Morphine versus fentanyl	Pretreatment, on-pump CAB	Post-operative inflammation	Lower IL-8, CD11b, CD18 levels	Murphy et al., 2007
	Morphine + PerC versus PerC	Prior to reperfusion, PCI	Post-operative ST-segment deviation, cTnI	Improved versus PerC alone (moderate reduction in TnI versus PerC)	Rentoukas et al., 2010
	Morphine	Post-treatment, tetralogy of Fallot repair	Post-operative cTnI, cardiac ejection	Improved	Zhang et al., 2013
MOR	Fentanyl versus diazepam	Pretreatment, PCI	Post-operative cTnI	Unaltered (versus Diazepam)	Abdel-Wahab et al., 2008
	Remifentanil	Pretreatment, off-pump CAB	Post-operative cTnI, cardiac index	Improved	Xu et al., 2009
		Pretreatment, On-pump CAB	Post-operative CK-MB, cTnI, IMA, hFABP	All improved	Wong et al., 2010a

Outcomes are shown for clinical trials (in generally small cohorts) of opioid receptor agonist modulation of myocardial outcomes from surgical I–R (functional recoveries, cellular damage, inflammation). CAB, coronary artery bypass surgery; CD11b, integrin-αM (complement component 3 receptor 3 subunit); CD18, integrin-β2; CK-MB, creatine kinase-myoglobin; cTnI, cardiac TnI; EF, ejection fraction; hFABP, heart type fatty acid-binding protein; IMA, ischemia-modified albumin; PCI, percutaneous coronary intervention; PerC, perconditioning (conditioning during late ischaemia, prior to reperfusion).