Table 1.

Known risk factors for musical hallucinations: after Sacks and Blom (4).

Hearing impairment

Tinnitus

Older age

Female sex (possibly)

Cerebral pathology

Epilepsy

Brain tumor

Stroke

Hemorrhage

Meningitis

Neurodegenerative disease (Alzheimer’s disease, Lewy body dementia)

Neurosyphilis

Localized atrophy

Traumatic lesion

Psychiatric disorder

Schizophrenia spectrum disorder

Bipolar disorder

Psychotic depression

Depression

Obsessive–compulsive disorder

Adaptation impairment

Personality disorder

ADHD

Cocaine dependence

Intoxication

Alcohol

Antidepressants

Opioids

Antibiotics

Beta blockers

Quinine

Salicylates

Miscellaneous

Behçet’s disease

Hashimoto’s encephalopathy

Lyme disease

Electroconvulsive treatment

Cochlear implantation

Sensory deprivation