Figure 4. HBV exposure in utero triggers a state of ‘trained immunity’ against unrelated bacterial challenge.

CB mononuclear cells from healthy (n=3) or HBV⁺ (n=3) mothers were incubated with the bacteria P. aeruginosa, UPEC, S. typhimurium, A. baumanii or L. monocytogenes (multiplicity of infection (MOI) 1) for 18 h and the cytokine production in the supernatant was analysed using multiplex assay. Bar graphs show the mean±s.e.m. of each data set. P-values were calculated using two-way analysis of variance and multiple comparisons were done using uncorrected Fisher’s least significant difference test. *P<0.05 and **P<0.01.