Table 1.
Characteristics of the Kaunas birth cohort (in %) with data for surrounding greenness level (NDVI) and distance to city parks.
| Risk factors | All participants (N = 3292) (100%) | Low birth weight (N = 150) (4.6%) | Term low birth weight (N = 187) (5.7%) | Preterm birth (N = 269) (8.2%) | NDVI < median = 0.546 (N = 1627) (49.4%) | NDVI > media n = 0.546 (N = 1665) (50.6%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Maternal age | ||||||
| <20 years | 93 (2.8) | 3 (2.0) | 3 (5.9) | 4 (2.1) | 51 (3.1) | 42 (2.5) |
| 20–29 years | 1935 (58.8) | 82 (54.7) | 26 (51.0) | 104 (55.6) | 963 (59.2) | 972 (58.4) |
| ≥30 years | 1264 (38.4) | 65 (43.3) | 22 (43.1) | 79 (42.2) | 613 (37.7) | 651 (39.1) |
| Ethnic group | ||||||
| Lithuanian | 3205 (97.4) | 145 (96.7) | 47 (92.2)* | 186 (99.5)* | 1585 (97.4) | 1620 (97.3) |
| Other | 87 (2.6) | 5 (3.3) | 4 (7.8) | 1 (0.5) | 42 (2.6) | 45 (2.7) |
| Marital status | ||||||
| Married | 2707 (82.2) | 106 (70.7)* | 36 (70.6)* | 142 (75.9)* | 1313 (80.7) | 1394 (83.7)* |
| Not married | 585 (17.8) | 44 (29.3) | 15 (29.4) | 45 (24.1) | 314 (19.3) | 271 (16.3) |
| Maternal education | ||||||
| Primary school | 162 (4.9) | 17 (11.3)* | 8 (15.7)* | 15 (8.0* | 82 (5.0) | 80 (4.8) |
| Secondary school | 1340 (40.7) | 67 (44.7) | 20 (39.2) | 86(46.0) | 670 (41.2) | 670 (40.2) |
| University degree | 1790 (54.4) | 66 (44.0) | 23 (45.1) | 86 (46.0) | 875 (53.8) | 915 (55.0) |
| Socio economic status | ||||||
| Low income | 994 (30.2) | 51 (34.0) | 13 (25.5) | 66 (35.3) | 513 (31.5) | 481 (28.9) |
| Medium income | 1799 (54.6) | 75 (50.0) | 31 (60.8) | 92 (49.2) | 873 (53.7) | 926 (55.6) |
| High income | 499 (15.2) | 24 (16.0) | 7 (13.7) | 29 (15.5) | 241 (14.8) | 258 (15.5) |
| Infant gender | ||||||
| Male | 1690 (51.3) | 65 (43.3)* | 18 (35.3)* | 90 (48.1) | 807 (49.6) | 883 (53.0)* |
| Female | 1602 (48.7) | 85 (56.7) | 33 (64.7) | 97 (51.2) | 820 (50.4) | 782 (47.0) |
| Parity | ||||||
| 1 Child | 1487 (45.2) | 69 (46.0) | 26 (51.0) | 83 (44.3) | 740 (45.5) | 747 (44.9) |
| ≥2 Child | 1805 (54.8) | 81 (54.0) | 25 (49.0) | 104 (55.6) | 887 (54.5) | 918 (55.1) |
| Previous preterm birth | ||||||
| No | 3231 (94.1) | 139 (92.7)* | 48 (94.1)* | 176 (94.1)* | 1596 (98.1) | 1635 (98.2) |
| Yes | 61 (1.9) | 11 (7.3) | 3 (5.9) | 11 (5.9) | 31 (1.9) | 30 (1.8) |
| Maternal smoking | ||||||
| Nonsmoker | 3066 (93.1) | 132 (88.0)* | 43 (84.3)* | 172 (92.0) | 1497 (92.0) | 1569 (94.2)* |
| Smoker | 226 (6.9) | 18 (12.0) | 8 (15.7) | 15 (8.0) | 130 (8.0) | 96 (5.8) |
| Paternal smoking | ||||||
| Nonsmoker | 1721 (52.8) | 65 (44.2)* | 33 (44.9) | 87 (46.8)** | 806 (50.1) | 915 (55.5)* |
| Smoker | 1536 (47.2) | 82 (55.8) | 27 (55.1) | 99 (53.2) | 803 (49.9) | 733 (44.5) |
| Maternal alcohol consumption | ||||||
| No | 3095 (94.0) | 139 (92.7) | 44 (86.3)* | 177 (94.7) | 1530 (94.0) | 1565 (94.0) |
| Yes | 197 (6.0) | 11 (7.3) | 7 (13.7) | 10 (5.3) | 97 (6.0) | 100 (6.0) |
| Maternal blood pressure (mm/Hg) | ||||||
| <140/80 | 2841 (86.3) | 121 (80.7)* | 39 (76.5)* | 159 (85.0) | 1402 (86.2) | 1439 (86.4) |
| ≥140 or ≥90 | 451 (13.7) | 29 (19.3) | 12 (23.5) | 28 (15.0) | 225 (13.8) | 226 (13.6) |
| Maternal chronic disease | ||||||
| No | 2487 (75.5) | 103 (68.7)* | 38 (74.5) | 132 (70.6) | 1232 (75.7) | 1255 (75.4) |
| Yes | 805 (24.5) | 47 (31.3) | 13 (25.5) | 55 (29.4) | 395 (24.3) | 410 (24.6) |
| Maternal body mass index (kg/m2) | ||||||
| <25 Normal | 1951 (59.3) | 106 (70.7)* | 42 (82.4) | 115 (59.3) | 947 (58.2) | 1004 (60.3) |
| 25–30 Overweight | 926 (28.1) | 31 (20.7) | 5 (9.8) | 48 (25.7) | 473 (29.1) | 453 (27.2) |
| >30 Obesity | 415 (12.6) | 13 (8.7) | 4 (7.8) | 24 (12.8) | 207 (12.7) | 208 (12.5) |
| Maternal stress | ||||||
| No | 2397 (72.8) | 100 (66.7)** | 33 (64.7) | 124 (66.3)* | 1171 (72.0) | 1226 (73.6) |
| Yes | 895 (27.2) | 50 (33.3) | 18 (35.3) | 63 (27.2) | 456 (28.0) | 439 (26.4) |
| Distance to the park | ||||||
| <300 m | 832 (25.3) | 43 (5.2) | 16 (1.9) | 42 (5.0)* | 305 (18.7) | 527 (31.7)* |
| 300–1000 m | 2015 (61.2) | 80 (4.0) | 27 (1.3) | 106 (5.3) | 1163 (71.5) | 852 (51.2) |
| >1000 m | 445 (13.5) | 27 (6.1) | 8 (1.8) | 39 (8.8) | 159 (9.8) | 286 (17.2) |
| Noise, mean (SE†) (dB) | 49.6 (6.2) | 49.4 (0.5) | 49.2 (0.7) | 48.9 (0.5) | 50.2 (0.2) | 48.7 (0.2)* |
| PM2.5 mean (SE†) (μg/m3) | 23.2 (0.2) | 24.5 (0.9) | 26.4* (1.5) | 23.0 (0.7) | 23.6 (0.3) | 22.7 (0.2)* |
| PM10 mean (SE†) (μg/m3) | 28.6 (0.2) | 29.4 (0.6) | 30.9* (1.1) | 28.4 (0.5) | 29.0 (0.2) | 28.1(0.2) |
| NO2 mean (SE†) (μg/m3) | 14.5 (0.1) | 14.9 (0.2) | 15.6* (0.4) | 14.3 (0.2) | 15.5 (0.1) | 13.5 (0.1)* |
*
p < 0.05.
**
p < 0.01.
†
SE-standard error.