Table 4.

Comorbidities associated with substance abuse and dependence.

• Medical: HCV infection, HBV infection, tuberculosis and other pulmonary disease, immune deficiency, human immunodeficiency virus infection, sexually transmitted diseases, sexual disorders, dental and periodontal disease, nutrient deficiency, cardiovascular disease, sleep disorders, chronic pain syndromes

• Psychiatric: Axis I spectrum disorders such as depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, personality disorder, bipolar disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, schizophrenia, cognitive dysfunction; Axis II personality and developmental disorders

• Social: poverty, homelessness, family dysfunction, corrections/prison, violence, sexual abuse, drug-using peer groups, easy drug access, lack of occupation and skills

• Other Addictions and Abuse: alcohol, nicotine, stimulants, cocaine, hallucinogens, marijuana, prescription drug, internet, gambling