Table 2.
Features of 45 Studies of Leadership Development for Physicians
| Feature | No. (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| Educational setting | ||
| Single residency/fellowship program | 19 (42) | |
| Physicians/surgeons/medical faculty | 8 (18) | |
| Multiple residency/chief residency/fellowship programs | 7 (16) | |
| Multidisciplinary programs | 11 (24) | |
| Educational aims | ||
| Skills | 29 (64) | |
| Technical and conceptual knowledge | 27 (60) | |
| Personal growth and self-awareness | 9 (20) | |
| Educational content | ||
| Leadership | 35 (78) | |
| Teamwork | 26 (58) | |
| Financial management | 16 (36) | |
| Self-management | 15 (33) | |
| Conflict management | 13 (29) | |
| Quality improvement | 12 (27) | |
| Communication | 12 (27) | |
| Health policy/strategy | 7 (16) | |
| Teaching/learning methods* | ||
| Didactic lectures/interactive plenary seminars | 36 (84) | |
| Group work | 32 (74) | |
| Project work/action-based learning | 17 (40) | |
| Simulation exercises | 12 (27) | |
| Multi-source/360-degree feedback tool | 3 (6) | |
| Evaluation design | ||
| Pre/post | 23 (51) | |
| Post | 22 (49) | |
| Comparison group | 4 (9) | |
| Quantitative only | 32 (71) | |
| Qualitative only | 1 (2) | |
| Mixed methods (quantitative and qualitative) | 12 (27) | |
| Outcomes measured/level | ||
| Reaction/satisfaction (Level 1) | 25 (56) | |
| Knowledge (subjective) (Level 2A) | 36 (80) | |
| Knowledge (objective) (Level 2B) | 7 (16) | |
| Behavior/expertise (subjective) (Level 3A) | 10 (22) | |
| Behavior/expertise (objective) (Level 3B) | 2 (4) | |
| System results/performance (subjective) (Level 4A) | 1 (2) | |
| System results/performance (objective) (Level 4B) | 5 (11) | |
*Data missing for two articles (n = 43)