Table 1.
List of agents tested in various mouse models of CVB3 infection
| Agent | Outcome | Ref. |
|---|---|---|
| Anti-viral agents | ||
| 2-(3,4-dichlorophenoxy)-5-nitrobenzonitrile | Reduced viral titers; suppressed myocardial inflammatory foci | [142] |
| CVB3 3C protease inhibitor | Inhibited viral replication; attenuated myocardial inflammation and fibrosis | [143] |
| Histone deacetylase inhibitors | Suppressed viral replication in vitro | [144] |
| Recombinant CAR4/7 | Suppressed CVB3 infection; myocardial inflammation was aggravated, likely as a secondary event | [145] |
| Ribavirin, and recombinant IFN-α | Inhibited myocardial viral replication; reduced myocardial damage | [146] |
| Short hairpin (Sh) RNA specific to 2B gene | Improved survival rate, reduced viral titers; attenuated tissue damage | [147] |
| Sh RNA to 2C protein | Reduced viral titers, suppressed myocarditis, and proinflammatory cytokine production | [148] |
| Soluble CAR-Fc fusion protein | Reduced viral infection, myocardial damage, and inflammation | [149] |
| Soluble viral traps (CAR-DAF-Fc) | Attenuated viral infection, myocardial inflammation, and fibrosis | [150] |
| Pharmacological agents/herbal compounds | ||
| 20 (S)-protopanaxtriol | Antiviral effects in vitro and reduced disease severity | [151] |
| α-bromo-4-chlorocinnamaldehyde | Reduced disease severity and viral titers; inhibited nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-kB) activation | [152] |
| β1 blocker (NO-metoprolol) | Cardioprotective | [153] |
| Aqueous extract of Spatholobus suberectus Dunn | Reduced viral titers and suppressed disease severity | [154] |
| Astragaloside IV | Decreased viral titers, necrosis and cellular infiltrations; attenuated myocardial fibrosis via inhibition of transforming growth factor beta -β1 signaling | [155] |
| Calycosin-7-O-P-D-glucopyranoside from Astragalus membranaceus var. Mongholicu | Improved survival rate; alleviated cardiac damage and reduced virus titers in the heart | [156] |
| Curcumin | Attenuated disease severity by inhibiting Phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt/NF-kB signaling | [157] |
| Phyllaemblicin B, extract from Phyllanthus emblica | Reduced viral titers; inhibited virus-mediated apoptosis and cardiac muscle damage | [158] |
| Immunological agents | ||
| Adoptive transfer of Treg cells | Protected against disease through IL-10 production | [159] |
| Anti-4-1BBL | Reduced cardiac damage and inflammation | [160] |
| Anti-B7.1 and anti-B7.2 | Anti-B7.1 prolonged the survivability of myocarditic mice; anti-B7.2 abrogated the protective effect of anti-B7.1 | [161] |
| Anti-FAS | Reduced caspase-3 expression, viral replication and cardiomyocyte apoptosis and myocardial injury | [162] |
| Atorvastatin | Attenuated myocardial injury by enhancing the expression of gap junction proteins | [163] |
| CD40-Ig fusion protein | Relieved myocardial injury and inhibited viral replication | [164] |
| CpG nucleotides | Inhibited viral infection | [165] |
| CTLA-4-Ig fusion protein | Reduced mortality and IFN-γ production | [166] |
| CXCL10 | Inhibited viral replication by recruiting NK cells | [167] |
| Galectin-9 | Ameliorated the disease by decreasing Th1 cytokines and promoting Treg and Th2 phenotypes | [168] |
| IFN-β and IFN-α 2 | Mediated anti-viral effects and protected from disease | [169] |
| IL-1 receptor antagonist encoded in plasmid DNA | Attenuated inflammation | [170] |
| IL-17 receptor A delivered through adenoviral vector | Decreased mortality by downregulating production of inflammatory mediators | [171] |
| IL-35 | Protected from disease via reduced IL-17 production | [172] |
| IL-4 | Improved cardiac function by promoting anti-inflammatory effects and downregulation of matrix metalloproteinases | [173] |
| IL-4 gene therapy | Protected from disease through Th2 polarization | [174] |
| miR-21 | Conferred resistance by inhibiting programmed cell death 4 expression | [175] |
| Nasal cardiac myosin or OX40 blockade | Ameliorated disease by enhancing Treg and IL-10 production | [129] |
| Plasmid DNA encoding soluble TNF receptor-Fc | Attenuated inflammation and myocardial fibrosis | [176] |
| Polyclonal Ig therapy | Protected from disease | [177] |
| Proteasome inhibitors | Reduced myocardial damage | |
| Recombinant CVB3/IFN-γ | Conferred protection | [178] |
| Thrombospondin-2 | Inhibited cardiac inflammation | [179] |
| TNF-α-induced protein 3 | Alleviated the disease by inhibiting NF-kB signaling | [180] |
| Truncated monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 | Ameliorated the disease via reduced infiltrations | [181] |
| α-Galactosylceramide | Protected from disease by modulating inflammatory cytokines and anti-vial immune responses | [182] |