Table 2.
Mean and SD for each parameter during the swing instant with the leading limb
| Parameters | Obstacle’s heights | The elderly | The young | ANOVA | Multiple comparison | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean | SD | Mean | SD | F | P | Factor | Tukey’s HSD | |||
| Hip flexion/extension [∠yz] (deg) | 0 cm | 26.5 | 9.3 | 24.7 | 4.1 | F1 | 1.02 | 0.32 | Obst. | Elderly: 0 < 5 < 20 |
| 5 cm | 46.2 | 8.6 | 41.3 | 7.1 | F2 | 187.96* | 0.00 | Young: 0 < 5 < 20 | ||
| 20 cm | 65.5 | 11.7 | 62.9 | 8.0 | F3 | 0.33 | 0.72 | |||
| Knee flexion/extension [∠yz] (deg) | 0 cm | 30.0 | 8.8 | 32.3 | 4.2 | F1 | 1.66 | 0.21 | Obst. | Elderly: 0 < 5 < 20 |
| 5 cm | 52.8 | 10.6 | 62.7 | 14.0 | F2 | 111.67* | 0.00 | Young: 0 < 5 < 20 | ||
| 20 cm | 84.2 | 16.0 | 85.4 | 16.9 | F3 | 0.88 | 0.42 | |||
| Ankle plantar flexion/dorsiflexion [∠yz] (deg); (90-α) | 0 cm | −16.9 | 6.7 | −15.2 | 3.5 | F1 | 0.22 | 0.65 | Obst. | Elderly: 0, 5 < 20 |
| 5 cm | −15.7 | 5.3 | −11.4 | 6.6 | F2 | 13.56* | 0.00 | |||
| 20 cm | −6.1 | 9.0 | −9.0 | 7.6 | F3 | 2.38 | 0.10 | |||
| Hip abduction/adduction [∠yz] (deg); (−90 + α) | 0 cm | −8.7 | 4.6 | −9.3 | 4.3 | F1 | 0.12 | 0.73 | Obst. | Elderly: 0, 5 > 20 |
| 5 cm | −12.1 | 8.4 | −11.5 | 4.6 | F2 | 13.04* | 0.00 | |||
| 20 cm | −26.4 | 20.8 | −22.5 | 13.0 | F3 | 0.28 | 0.75 | |||
| Trunk lateral flexion [∠zx] (deg) | 0 cm | 1.7 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 0.8 | F1 | 1.04 | 0 .3 2 | ||
| 5 cm | 2.3 | 1.6 | 1.5 | 1.2 | F2 | 6.54* | 0.00 | nsa | ||
| 20 cm | 2.5 | 1.4 | 2.4 | 1.2 | F3 | 1.16 | 0.32 | |||
| Trunk forward/backward [∠yz] (deg) | 0 cm | 2.3 | 4.2 | 0.8 | 2.1 | F1 | 0.72 | 0.40 | ||
| 5 cm | 2.4 | 4.8 | 0.7 | 2.8 | F 2 | 0 .1 9 | 0.83 | |||
| 20 cm | 2.3 | 4.4 | 1.5 | 4.1 | F3 | 0.28 | 0.76 | |||
| Trunk rotation [∠xy] (deg) | 0 cm | 8.2 | 4.7 | 11.9 | 2.6 | F1 | 11.10* | 0.00 | Group | 5 cm: E < Y |
| 5 cm | 7.0 | 4.1 | 13.8 | 7.0 | F2 | 0.05 | 0.95 | |||
| 20 cm | 8.5 | 4.8 | 11.4 | 7.2 | F3 | 0.93 | 0.40 | |||
| Center of gravity [z] (cm) | 0 cm | 78.2 | 2.9 | 88.0 | 4.4 | F1 | 51.79* | 0.00 | Group | 0, 5, 20 cm: E < Y |
| 5 cm | 79.5 | 2.6 | 90.2 | 4.8 | F2 | 98.41* | 0.00 | Obst. | Elderly: 0 < 5 < 20 | |
| 20 cm | 81.7 | 2.4 | 93.3 | 4.8 | F3 | 4.05* | 0.02 | Young: 0 < 5 < 20 | ||
| Kneeb [z] (cm) | 0 cm | 39.6 | 3.0 | 43.1 | 3.3 | F1 | 0.42 | 0.52 | ||
| 5 cm | 48.8 | 3.3 | 51.8 | 3.2 | F2 | 283.35* | 0.00 | Obst. | Elderly: 0 < 5 < 20 | |
| 20 cm | 61.6 | 4.9 | 67.6 | 5.0 | F3 | 1.32 | 0.28 | Young: 0 < 5 < 20 | ||
| Ankle [z] (cm) | 0 cm | 8.2 | 1.1 | 9.1 | 1.3 | F1 | 14.64* | 0.00 | Group | 5, 20 cm: E < Y |
| 5 cm | 18.0 | 3.4 | 22.0 | 2.8 | F2 | 520.71* | 0.00 | Elderly: 0 < 5 < 20 | ||
| 20 cm | 35.5 | 4.0 | 39.7 | 4.0 | F3 | 2.12 | 0.13 | Obst. | Young : 0 < 5 < 20 | |
| Toe [z] (cm) | 0 cm | 4.5 | 1.2 | 4.8 | 1.3 | F1 | 3.10 | 0.09 | Obst. | Elderly: 0 < 5 < 20 |
| 5 cm | 14.1 | 3.4 | 16.2 | 2.3 | F2 | 464.01* | 0.00 | Young : 0 < 5 < 20 | ||
| 20 cm | 31.3 | 4.6 | 33.9 | 4.4 | F3 | 0.89 | 0.42 | |||
| Shoulderb [z] (cm) | 0 cm | 113.4 | 4.5 | 129.7 | 5.8 | F1 | 3.00 | 0.10 | ||
| 5 cm | 113.3 | 4.2 | 130.4 | 6.1 | F2 | 3.06 | 0.06 | |||
| 20 cm | 113.4 | 3.9 | 131.2 | 6.3 | F3 | 2.84 | 0.07 | |||
| Waistb [z] (cm) | 0 cm | 69.4 | 3.1 | 76.2 | 4.8 | F1 | 0.58 | 0.46 | ||
| 5 cm | 70.3 | 2.8 | 78.0 | 5.4 | F2 | 39.18* | 0.00 | Obst. | Elderly: 0, 5 < 20 | |
| 20 cm | 71.8 | 3.0 | 80.4 | 5.3 | F3 | 2.76 | 0.07 | Young : 0, 5 < 20 | ||
*P < 0.05.
F1: between age groups, F2: between obstacles, F3: interaction, E: the elderly, Y: the young.
Center of gravity was used in ANOVA because syntactic parallelism between age groups could not be assumed.
aThe main effect on trunk lateral flexion is shown in Table 2, whereas no significant post hoc was observed in this parameter. Instead, we stated the effect sizes, which can refer to the raw difference between conditions in this parameter as shown in Table 2.
bBecause parameters were correlated with height, we performed ANCOVA, which utilized height as a covariate.
Effect size: the elderly - 0 cm vs. 5 cm: 0.41, 0 cm vs. 20 cm: 0.55, 5 cm vs. 20 cm: 0.1; the young - 0 cm vs. 5 cm: 0.29, 0 cm vs. 20 cm: 1.23, 5 cm vs. 20 cm: 0.8.