Table 4.

Summary of meta-analyses for measures of parasitism, tests of condition and cumulative parasitism.

			random effects model
measure of parasitisma or condition	sample size (analyses)	standard difference in means	95% CI lower limit	95% CI upper limit	z-value	p-value	lower in dominant or subordinate	citations
blood parasites	3	0.401	0.053	0.749	2.257	0.024	subordinate	[134]
ectoparasitesb	3	2.275	1.085	3.465	3.746	0.0002	subordinate	[33,143,144]
gastrointestinal parasites	13	1.201	0.549	1.853	3.611	0.0017	subordinate	[15,28,145–151]
gastrointestinal parasites (helminths only)c	10	1.445	0.879	2.012	5.038	<0.0001	subordinate	[15,28,145–150]
all parasite typesd,e	19	2.015	1.136	2.892	4.495	<0.0001	subordinate
tests of condition: haematocritf	4	0.638	0.241	1.035	3.147	0.0016	subordinate	[114,131,141]

^aMeasures of parasitism included estimates of parasite infection prevalence, parasite species richness and parasite infection intensity.

^bTaxa significantly explains between-study heterogeneity for tests of ectoparasites.

^cGastrointestinal helminths were assessed as a sub-category of all GI parasites.

^dTaxa significantly explains between-study heterogeneity for tests of cumulative parasites.

^eEgger's test: p = 0.058.

^fTaxa significantly explains between-study heterogeneity for tests of haematocrit.