Mechanisms underlying the rapid andidepressant effects of ketamine. Changes in GluR1 appear to be region specific, with evidence for increased GluR1 in the medial prefrontal cortex but not the hippocampus. Abbreviations: ADE, antidepressant-like effects; NMDA-R, N-methyl-D-aspartate glutamate receptor; AMPA-R, α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor; GluR1, R1 subunit of AMPA-R; eEF2k, eukaryotic elongation factor 2 kinase; BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor; pmTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin; GSK3, glycogen synthase kinase 3.
⊕, enhance/stimulate; ⊖, inhibit/reduce; ⊘, blockade.