Table 1.
Sociodemographic characteristic according to the health clinics
| Total | HbA1c (%)
|
CBG (mmol/L)
|
SBP (mmHg)
|
DBP (mmHg)
|
LDL-C
|
HDL-C
|
TG
|
Total-C
|
||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean (SD) | P | Mean (SD) | P | Mean (SD) | P | Mean (SD) | P | Mean (SD) | P | Mean (SD) | P | Mean (SD) | P | Mean (SD) | P | |||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||
| 8.5 (2.1) | 9.4 (3.7) | 136.9 (17.7) | 79.2 (12.2) | 3.0 (1.0) | 1.0 (0.3) | 1.9 (1.3) | 4.8 (1.2) | |||||||||||
| Gender | Female | 368 | 8.4 (2.0) | 0.253 | 9.4 (3.6) | 0.638 | 137.0 (17.6) | 0.902 | 78.8 (12.0) | 0.381 | 3.0 (1.0) | 0.084 | 1.0 (0.3) | <0.0001 | 1.8 (1.0) | 0.003 | 4.9 (1.1) | 0.119 |
| Male | 329 | 8.6 (2.3) | 9.5 (3.8) | 136.8 (17.8) | 79.6 (12.3) | 2.9 (1.0) | 0.9 (0.3) | 2.1 (1.6) | 4.7 (1.2) | |||||||||
| Ethnicity | Malay | 367 | 8.4 (2.2) | 0.138 | 9.5 (3.9) | 0.753 | 138.6 (17.9) | 0.020 | 81.0 (12.8) | <0.0001 | 3.1 (1.0) | 0.136 | 0.9 (0.3) | <0.0001 | 2.0 (1.3) | 0.214 | 4.9 (1.2) | 0.587 |
| Chinese | 162 | 8.3 (1.8) | 9.3 (3.2) | 136.1 (16.0) | 75.6 (11.5) | 2.9 (0.9) | 1.1 (0.4) | 1.8 (0.9) | 4.8 (1.0) | |||||||||
| Indian | 165 | 8.8 (2.2) | 9.6 (3.7) | 134.2 (18.5) | 78.5 (10.6) | 2.9 (1.0) | 0.9 (0.3) | 2.0 (1.5) | 4.8 (1.1) | |||||||||
| Aborigine | 3 | 7.8 (1.6) | 8.3 (1.8) | 125.7 (7.4) | 77.7 (2.1) | 1.6 (0.5) | 0.7 (0.2) | 2.0 (1.0) | 3.2 (0.5) | |||||||||
| Others | 3 | 7.1 (0.9) | 5.5 (1.1) | 130.7 (13.3) | 77.0 (14.1) | 2.3 (0.6) | 0.9 (0.2) | 1.4 (0.5) | 3.8 (0.6) | |||||||||
| Religion | No religion | 33 | 8.7 (1.8) | 0.494 | 8.6 (3.2) | 0.457 | 133.0 (14.6) | 0.053 | 73.5 (9.2) | <0.0001 | 2.8 (0.8) | 0.147 | 1.2 (0.4) | <0.0001 | 1.6 (0.7) | 0.066 | 4.7 (0.8) | 0.223 |
| Moslem | 375 | 8.4 (2.2) | 9.5 (3.9) | 138.6 (17.9) | 80.9 (12.9) | 3.1 (1.0) | 0.9 (0.3) | 2.0 (1.3) | 4.9 (1.2) | |||||||||
| Buddhist | 82 | 8.3 (2.0) | 9.9 (3.5) | 137.0 (16.4) | 76.4 (12.1) | 3.0 (1.0) | 1.1 (0.5) | 1.9 (1.1) | 5.0 (1.0) | |||||||||
| Hindu/Sikh | 149 | 8.7 (2.7) | 9.4 (3.6) | 133.6 (18.5) | 78.1 (10.2) | 3.0 (1.1) | 0.9 (0.2) | 2.1 (1.5) | 4.8 (1.2) | |||||||||
| Christian/Catholic | 22 | 8.8 (2.7) | 9.1 (3.2) | 134.5 (14.7) | 80.0 (13.2) | 2.5 (0.6) | 1.0 (0.3) | 1.3 (0.6) | 4.3 (0.7) | |||||||||
| Others | 37 | 8.1 (1.7) | 8.7 (2.6) | 136.5 (16.3) | 75.2 (10.4) | 2.7 (1.0) | 1.1 (0.3) | 1.7 (0.7) | 4.6 (1.1) | |||||||||
| Religiosity | Very agree | 294 | 8.6 (2.2) | 0.586 | 9.5 (3.5) | 0.334 | 137.5 (18.5) | 0.744 | 80.4 (12.9) | 0.065 | 3.1 (1.1) | 0.404 | 1.0 (0.3) | <0.0001 | 2.0 (1.5) | 0.272 | 4.9 (1.3) | 0.542 |
| Agree | 301 | 8.3 (2.2) | 9.5 (3.9) | 137.1 (17.6) | 78.7 (10.9) | 2.9 (0.9) | 0.9 (0.3) | 2.0 (1.2) | 4.7 (1.0) | |||||||||
| Not sure | 25 | 8.6 (1.5) | 10.0 (3.0) | 133.4 (16.0) | 78.0 (11.3) | 2.8 (0.9) | 1.0 (0.3) | 2.1 (1.2) | 4.9 (1.0) | |||||||||
| Disagree | 73 | 8.4 (1.8) | 8.6 (3.2) | 135.4 (15.6) | 75.9 (14.0) | 3.0 (0.9) | 1.2 (0.4) | 1.6 (0.6) | 4.9 (1.0) | |||||||||
| Very disagree | 3 | 9.5 (0.9) | 9.6 (2.0) | 133.0 (2.6) | 80.0 (6.1) | 2.9 (1.7) | 1.0 (0.2) | 2.0 (1.1) | 4.8 (1.4) | |||||||||
| Marital status | Married | 548 | 8.6 (2.2) | 0.067 | 9.5 (3.7) | 0.123 | 136.8 (17.7) | 0.942 | 79.9 (12.1) | 0.024 | 3.0 (1.0) | 0.642 | 1.0 (0.3) | 0.039 | 2.0 (1.3) | 0.216 | 4.8 (1.2) | 0.152 |
| Living with a partner | 3 | 8.1 (2.7) | 11.0 (4.3) | 128.3 (14.6) | 73.7 (6.7) | 2.5 (0.2) | 1.0 (0.1) | 1.3 (0.8) | 4.9 (1.3) | |||||||||
| Divorced | 13 | 8.9 (2.5) | 8.6 (3.1) | 138.2 (16.0) | 77.8 (9.5) | 3.2 (1.3) | 1.1 (90.3) | 2.7 (2.4) | 5.7 (1.7) | |||||||||
| Widowed | 98 | 8.0 (1.9) | 9.1 (3.6) | 138.0 (18.8) | 75.3 (12.3) | 3.0 (0.9) | 1.0 (0.4) | 1.7 (0.9) | 4.8 (1.0) | |||||||||
| Separated | 8 | 10.2 (2.4) | 11.2 (3.0) | 135.5 (23.1) | 79.8 (15.0) | 3.0 (1.1) | 1.0 (0.2) | 2.2 (1.4) | 5.0 (1.0) | |||||||||
| Single | 26 | 7.9 (1.6) | 7.9 (2.6) | 137.3 (15.1) | 80.5 (12.2) | 2.7 (0.8) | 1.1 (0.6) | 1.9 (1.3) | 4.5 (0.8) | |||||||||
| Educational level | Primary | 259 | 8.4 (2.2) | 0.807 | 9.4 (3.4) | 0.870 | 137.2 (19.6) | 0.673 | 77.3 (12.4) | 0.003 | 2.9 (1.0) | 0.466 | 1.0 (0.3) | <0.0001 | 1.8 (1.2) | 0.206 | 4.7 (1.1) | 0.181 |
| Secondary | 310 | 8.6 (2.2) | 9.5 (4.0) | 136.2 (16.9) | 80.2 (11.9) | 3.0 (1.0) | 1.0 (0.3) | 2.0 (1.4) | 4.9 (1.2) | |||||||||
| Tertiary | 75 | 8.5 (1.8) | 9.3 (3.3) | 136.8 (15.8) | 82.2 (11.7) | 3.1 (1.0) | 0.9 (0.20) | 2.2 (1.5) | 4.9 (1.3) | |||||||||
| Others | 45 | 8.5 (2.0) | 9.8 (3.9) | 139.5 (14.9) | 77.1 (11.9) | 2.9 (1.0) | 1.2 (0.6) | 1.9 (0.7) | 4.9 (1.0) | |||||||||
| Employment status | Employed | 315 | 8.7 (2.3) | 0.166 | 9.4 (3.7) | 0.632 | 135.3 (17.8) | 0.054 | 80.7 (12.9) | 0.004 | 3.0 (1.1) | 0.254 | 0.9 (90.3) | 0.007 | 2.1 (1.5) | 0.050 | 4.9 (1.3) | 0.600 |
| Unemployed | 11 | 8.7 (1.3) | 9.7 (3.3) | 130.5 (21.2) | 81.5 (15.1) | 3.2 (0.6) | 0.8 (0.1) | 2.3 (1.3) | 5.0 (0.8) | |||||||||
| Retired | 172 | 8.3 (1.9) | 9.7 (3.7) | 137.5 (18.4) | 76.6 (10.6) | 2.8 (1.0) | 1.0 (0.4) | 2.0 (1.2) | 4.7 (1.1) | |||||||||
| Home manager | 199 | 8.3 (2.1) | 9.2 (3.6) | 139.3 (16.5) | 78.7 (11.8) | 3.0 (1.0) | 1.0 (0.3) | 1.7 (0.9) | 4.8 (1.1) | |||||||||
| Income (RM) | No income | 157 | 8.3 (2.1) | 0.703 | 9.2 (3.2) | 0.742 | 138.0 (17.9) | 0.405 | 75.3 (11.3) | <0.0001 | 2.8 (0.9) | 0.228 | 1.0 (0.4) | 0.115 | 1.8 (1.0) | 0.412 | 4.7 (1.1) | 0.254 |
| <1,000 | 170 | 8.5 (2.1) | 9.5 (4.0) | 138.2 (919.4) | 79.4 (12.3) | 3.0 (1.0) | 1.0 (0.3) | 2.0 (1.5) | 4.8 (1.2) | |||||||||
| 1,000–2,999 | 235 | 8.5 (2.3) | 9.3 (3.5) | 135.3 (17.1) | 80.2 (12.8) | 3.0 (1.0) | 0.9 (0.2) | 2.0 (1.4) | 4.9 (1.3) | |||||||||
| 3,000–4,999 | 87 | 8.7 (2.1) | 9.9 (3.8) | 135.5 (14.6) | 82.4 (10.4) | 3.1 (1.1) | 1.0 (0.3) | 2.0 (1.3) | 4.9 (1.2) | |||||||||
| ≥5,000 | 38 | 8.3 (1.6) | 9.6 (3.3) | 136.8 (15.5) | 79.6 (11.8) | 3.0 (0.8) | 1.0 (0.3) | 1.6 (0.5) | 4.7 (0.8) | |||||||||
| Exercise | No | 295 | 8.6 (2.2) | 0.443 | 9.5 (3.9) | 0.481 | 137.7 (17.8) | 0.309 | 79.9 (12.2) | <0.0001 | 2.9 (1.0) | 0.071 | 0.9 (0.3) | 0.080 | 2.0 (1.3) | 0.325 | 4.8 (1.1) | 0.046 |
| ≤3 times/week | 232 | 8.4 (2.2) | 9.6 (3.6) | 137.2 (17.5) | 80.4 (11.8) | 3.1 (1.0) | 1.0 (0.3) | 2.0 (1.4) | 5.0 (1.2) | |||||||||
| >3 times/week | 169 | 8.3 (2.0) | 9.1 (3.4) | 135.1 (17.8) | 75.8 (12.1) | 2.9 (1.0) | 1.0 (0.4) | 1.8 (1.0) | 4.7 (1.2) | |||||||||
| Smoking | Never | 532 | 8.4 (2.1) | 0.177 | 9.4 (3.5) | 0.983 | 137.0 (917.6) | 0.808 | 79.3 (11.9) | 0.804 | 3.0 (1.0) | 0.109 | 1.0 (0.3) | 0.163 | 1.9 (1.3) | 0.393 | 4.9 (1.1) | 0.375 |
| Stopped ≤5 years | 22 | 9.1 (2.8) | 9.3 (5.6) | 139.8 (23.2) | 80.5 (13.2) | 2.7 (0.8) | 1.0 (0.4) | 2.3 (2.7) | 5.0 (1.6) | |||||||||
| Stopped >5 years | 60 | 8.1 (2.3) | 9.5 (4.0) | 136.1 (15.7) | 77.9 (12.2) | 2.7 (1.2) | 0.9 (0.2) | 2.1 (1.3) | 4.6 (1.4) | |||||||||
| Yes | 83 | 8.7 (2.0) | 9.6 (3.7) | 135.9 (18.0) | 79.0 (13.7) | 2.9 (1.0) | 1.0 (0.4) | 2.1 (1.0) | 4.8 (1.1) | |||||||||
| Alcohol consumption | Never | 607 | 8.5 (2.2) | 0.359 | 9.5 (3.7) | 0.692 | 137.0 (17.9) | 0.615 | 79.1 (12.0) | 0.844 | 3.0 (1.0) | 0.358 | 1.0 (0.3) | 0.106 | 1.9 (1.3) | 0.296 | 4.8 (1.2) | 0.105 |
| Yes | 45 | 8.4 (1.8) | 9.3 (3.7) | 134.5 (17.8) | 78.7 (13.5) | 3.0 (1.1) | 1.1 (0.5) | 2.2 (1.4) | 5.0 (1.1) | |||||||||
| Stopped drinking | 46 | 8.0 (1.8) | 9.0 (3.5) | 137.8 (15.1) | 80.1 (13.9) | 2.7 (0.9) | 0.9 (0.2) | 1.8 (0.8) | 4.5 (0.9) | |||||||||
| Hypertension | No | 149 | 8.9 (2.1) | 0.024 | 10.1 (4.6) | 0.014 | 130.3 (15.4) | <0.0001 | 79.2 (13.2) | 0.932 | 3.1 (0.9) | 0.112 | 0.9 (0.3) | 0.051 | 1.8 (1.3) | 0.193 | 4.9 (1.2) | 0.383 |
| Yes | 539 | 8.4 (2.1) | 9.3 (3.3) | 138.9 (17.8) | 79.2 (11.8) | 2.9 (1.0) | 1.0 (0.3) | 2.0 (1.3) | 4.8 (1.2) | |||||||||
| Dyslipidemia | No | 408 | 8.4 (2.1) | 0.465 | 9.6 (3.9) | 0.199 | 139.3 (18.4) | <0.0001 | 81.6 (12.6) | <0.0001 | 3.0 (0.9) | 0.277 | 0.9 (0.3) | <0.0001 | 2.0 (1.4) | 0.544 | 4.8 (1.2) | 0.929 |
| Yes | 265 | 8.6 (2.2) | 9.2 (3.2) | 133.5 (16.0) | 75.6 (10.5) | 2.9 (1.1) | 1.0 (0.3) | 1.9 (1.2) | 4.8 (1.2) | |||||||||
| Stroke/TIA | No | 681 | 8.5 (2.1) | 0.288 | 9.4 (3.7) | 0.790 | 136.8 (17.7) | 0.239 | 79.2 (12.2) | 0.974 | 3.0 (1.0) | 0.363 | 1.0 (0.3) | 0.386 | 1.9 (1.3) | 0.886 | 4.8 (1.2) | 0.699 |
| Yes | 14 | 7.8 (2.0) | 9.2 (3.0) | 142.4 (16.1) | 79.1 (11.9) | 2.6 (1.2) | 0.9 (0.1) | 2.0 (0.8) | 4.7 (1.3) | |||||||||
| Ischemic heart disease | No | 662 | 8.5 (2.2) | 0.816 | 9.4 (3.6) | 0.488 | 136.8 (17.8) | 0.430 | 79.3 (12.2) | 0.202 | 3.0 (1.0) | 0.048 | 1.0 (0.3) | 0.509 | 1.9 (1.3) | 0.784 | 4.8 (1.2) | 0.042 |
| Yes | 31 | 8.4 (1.6) | 9.9 (5.1) | 139.3 (15.7) | 76.5 (11.4) | 2.6 (90.9) | 0.9 (0.5) | 2.0 (0.7) | 4.4 (1.1) | |||||||||
| Retinopathy | No | 680 | 8.4 (2.1) | 0.013 | 9.4 (3.7) | 0.858 | 136.9 (17.8) | 0.986 | 79.3 (12.2) | 0.136 | 3.0 (1.0) | 0.191 | 1.0 (0.3) | 0.015 | 1.9 (1.3) | 0.589 | 4.8 (1.2) | 0.459 |
| Yes | 19 | 9.7 (2.2) | 9.6 (3.5) | 136.8 (14.5) | 75.1 (10.5) | 2.7 (1.1) | 1.2 (0.8) | 1.8 (0.9) | 4.6 (1.2) | |||||||||
| Nephropathy | No | 670 | 8.5 (2.2) | 0.350 | 9.4 (3.7) | 0.689 | 136.8 (17.7) | 0.807 | 79.2 (12.2) | 0.655 | 3.0 (1.0) | 0.404 | 1.0 (0.3) | 0.566 | 1.9 (1.3) | 0.997 | 4.8 (1.2) | 0.569 |
| Yes | 23 | 8.9 (1.7) | 9.7 (3.5) | 137.7 (17.3) | 78.0 (9.6) | 2.8 (1.1) | 1.0 (0.7) | 1.9 (1.2) | 4.7 (1.1) | |||||||||
| Diabetic foot problems | No | 672 | 8.5 (2.1) | 0.994 | 9.5 (3.7) | 0.065 | 137.1 (17.7) | 0.071 | 79.4 (12.3) | 0.019 | 3.0 (1.0) | 0.146 | 1.0 (0.3) | 0.047 | 1.9 (1.2) | 0.148 | 4.8 (1.2) | 0.107 |
| Yes | 22 | 8.5 (2.0) | 8.0 (3.1) | 130.2 (15.3) | 73.2 (7.3) | 2.6 (0.9) | 0.8 (0.1) | 2.4 (2.2) | 4.4 (1.1) | |||||||||
| OHA | No | 61 | 9.0 (2.5) | 0.041 | 10.1 (4.3) | 0.128 | 144.1 (20.2) | 0.001 | 78.2 (11.4) | 0.504 | 3.2 (1.2) | 0.064 | 0.9 (0.2) | 0.257 | 2.3 (1.4) | 0.040 | 5.2 (1.3) | 0.009 |
| Yes | 634 | 8.4 (2.1) | 9.4 (3.6) | 136.2 (17.3) | 79.3 (12.3) | 2.9 (1.0) | 1.0 (0.3) | 1.9 (1.3) | 4.8 (1.2) | |||||||||
| Insulin | Nil | 423 | 7.7 (1.7) | <0.0001 | 8.6 (3.0) | <0.0001 | 136.1 (16.9) | 0.075 | 80.1 (12.6) | <0.0001 | 3.0 (0.9) | 0.015 | 1.0 (0.3) | 0.433 | 1.7 (0.9) | <0.0001 | 4.7 (1.0) | 0.004 |
| 1 type | 191 | 9.6 (2.1) | 10.5 (3.4) | 136.6 (19.0) | 77.1 (10.6) | 2.9 (1.1) | 1.0 (0.4) | 2.3 (1.6) | 4.9 (1.3) | |||||||||
| 2 types | 69 | 10.2 (2.3) | 11.7 (5.5) | 141.1 (18.5) | 77.6 (12.6) | 3.3 (1.0) | 0.9 (0.2) | 2.3 (2.0) | 5.3 (1.4) | |||||||||
| ≥3 types | 11 | 8.8 (1.7) | 10.8 (5.6) | 144.8 (10.6) | 90.8 (10.1) | 3.5 (1.3) | 0.8 (0.2) | 1.9 (0.8) | 5.1 (1.5) | |||||||||
| Number of AHA agents | Nil | 82 | 8.7 (2.1) | 0.530 | 10.1 (4.6) | 0.038 | 125.7 (14.0) | <0.0001 | 78.0 (14.5) | 0.192 | 3.2 (1.0) | 0.209 | 1.0 (0.3) | 0.154 | 1.7 (1.4) | 0.057 | 4.9 (1.1) | 0.630 |
| 1 type | 206 | 8.6 (2.1) | 9.3 (3.5) | 132.8 (14.5) | 77.8 (10.6) | 3.0 (1.0) | 1.0 (0.3) | 1.8 (1.0) | 4.8 (1.1) | |||||||||
| 2 types | 204 | 8.3 (2.1) | 8.9 (93.3) | 137.3 (16.4) | 79.7 (11.7) | 2.9 (1.0) | 1.0 (0.3) | 1.9 (91.1) | 4.7 (1.1) | |||||||||
| 3 types | 144 | 8.3 (2.3) | 9.8 (3.5) | 143.8 (18.5) | 80.6 (12.8) | 2.9 (1.0) | 1.0 (0.4) | 2.2 (1.7) | 4.9 (1.3) | |||||||||
| ≥4 types | 58 | 8.5 (2.0) | 9.9 (4.0) | 148.2 (21.5) | 80.2 (13.4) | 3.1 (1.1) | 0.9 (0.2) | 2.1 (91.3) | 4.9 (1.1) | |||||||||
| Number of LLA agents | Nil | 156 | 8.5 (2.1) | 0.773 | 9.7 (4.1) | 0.417 | 137.4 (17.8) | 0.125 | 81.2 (13.8) | 0.051 | 3.1 (0.8) | 0.111 | 1.0 (0.3) | 0.608 | 1.7 (0.8) | 0.035 | 4.8 (0.9) | 0.981 |
| 1 type | 534 | 8.5 (2.1) | 9.3 (3.5) | 136.6 (17.6) | 78.6 (11.7) | 2.9 (1.0) | 1.0 (90.3) | 2.0 (1.4) | 4.8 (1.2) | |||||||||
| 2 types | 4 | 9.3 (1.0) | 11.2 (93.9) | 154.3 (15.5) | 76.3 (7.9) | 2.3 (0.7) | 0.8 (0.4) | 2.1 (1.3) | 4.9 (1.8) | |||||||||
| Number of APA agents | Nil | 616 | 8.4 (2.1) | 0.656 | 9.5 (93.7) | 0.686 | 137.1 (17.8) | 0.644 | 79.8 (12.2) | <0.0001 | 3.0 (1.0) | 0.900 | 1.0 (0.3) | 0.560 | 1.9 (1.3) | 0.866 | 4.9 (1.2) | 0.291 |
| 1 type | 74 | 8.7 (2.3) | 9.2 (93.6) | 135.1 (16.6) | 74.1 (10.7) | 2.7 (0.9) | 1.0 (0.3) | 2.0 (1.4) | 4.6 (1.2) | |||||||||
| 2 types | 2 | 8.0 (0.6) | 7.9 (3.2) | 140.5 (20.5) | 69.0 (1.4) | 2.6 (0.5) | 0.8 (0.1) | 2.0 (0.9) | 4.4 (0.8) | |||||||||
Note: P-values were for the independent t-test and analysis of variance. The bold P-values signify those that were below the significant cut-off value of <0.05.
Abbreviations: CBG, casual blood glucose; SBP, systolic blood pressure; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; OHA, oral hypoglycemic agent; AHA, antihypertensive agent; LLA, lipid-lowering agent; APA, antiplatelet agent; SD, standard deviation; TG, triglycerides; TIA, transient ischemic attack.