Table 1.

Observed anticonvulsive and neuroprotective actions of endogenous antioxidants.

Substance	Cells/Animals/Humans	Seizure Model	References
Potential antioxidant actions
α-Lipoic acid
Anti-convulsive effects	Animal model (rats)	PIL	[79, 142]
Inhibits seizure activity and oxidative damage decreases lipid peroxidation and inhibits nitrite formation enhances the activity of antioxidant enzymes abolishes changes of Na+, K+-ATPase activity induced by pilocarpine	Animal model (rats)	PIL/Iron	[70, 72, 143]
Influence on neuronal excitability and further on development and propagation of certain seizure types, namely through its antioxidant activity	In vitro & in vivo models	-	[144]
Strong antioxidant effects in vivo and in vitro decreases ROS temporary metal chelating increases α-tocopherol and ascorbate recycling	In vitro & in vivo models	-	[144]
Dihydrolipoic acid
Strong antioxidant effects in vivo and in vitro decreases ROS temporary metal chelating increases α-tocopherol and ascorbate recycling In vitro & in vivo models		-	[144]
Melatonin
Attenuates seizure activity and neurodegeneration increases latency to the appearance of the first seizure	Animal model (rats)	KA/PTZ/PIL	[76, 78, 139, 145]
Exerts antioxidant properties	Patients with epilepsy	Children	[146]
Exerts anticonvulsive and neuroprotective properties decreases ROS and RNS production decreases ROS and RNS production blocks lipid peroxidation and nucleic acids oxidation maintains GSH homeostasis and the GSH-related antioxidant enzyme system	Animal model (rats)	KA/Amig. kindl	[142, 75]
	Animal model (mice/rats)	KA/Iron	[185, 147]
	Animal model (mice)	KA	[76]
	Animal model (rats)	KA	[186, 149]
Protects against seizures and decreased LPO	Animal model (rats)	Iron	[147, 150]
Protects against oxidative stress free radicals scavenging stimulation of GPx activity inhibition of NOS activity	Animal model (rats)	Iron	[135]
Suppress epileptic activity by inhibiting peroxidation	Animal model (rats/mice)	Iron/KA	[147, 151]
Selen
Provides protection against reactive oxygen species induced damage levels are lower in patients with epilepsy	Patients with epilepsy	Children	[36]
Ubiquinone
Prevents cells from free radicals induced oxidative damage decreases the extent of oxidative stress and consequently the severity of seizures	Animal model (rats)	PIL	[86, 87]
Potentiate the antiepileptic effects of PHT treatment ameliorates oxidative stress and cognitive impairment caused by PHT	Animal model (rats)	PIL	[86]

BBB – blood brain barrier, CAT – catalase, GPx – glutathione synthetase, GSH – glutathione, KA – kainic acid, LPO- lipid peroxidation, NOS - nitric oxide synthase, PIL – pilocarpin, PHT – phenytoin, PTZ – pentylenetetrazol, ROS – reactive oxygen species, RNS – reactive nitrogen species, SOD - superoxide dismutase