Table 1.
Results of Epidemiological and Case-Control Studies Involving Cruciferous Vegetable Consumption and Cancer Risk
| Cancer type | Number of subjects | Follow-up (years) | Cancer incidence | Results | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lung cancer | 41,837 postmenopausal women in Iowa | 4 (1986–1989) | 138 | Amount specific data (servings per week): 0.0 RR=1.0 0.5 RR=0.74(0.44–1.26) 1.0 RR=0.67(0.40–1.12) <3.0 RR=0.72 (0.40–1.29) NOTE: diagnosed lung cancer patients significantly lower intake of CV–subjects (12 cases) diagnosed with large cell carcinoma observed greatest difference (p=0.02). Smoking a larger contributing factor to lung cancer development. |
(271) |
| 89,284 women aged 34–59 years | 12 (1980–1992) | 399 | Amount specific data (frequency of consumption): Never RR=1.0 1–3 per month RR=1.0 1 per week RR=0.8 2–4 per week RR=0.9 more than five per week RR=0.2 NOTE: consumption of broccoli more than five times per week associated with significant reduction in lung cancer risk (p=0.03). |
(265) | |
| 77,283 women (39–63 years) 47,778 men (40–75 years) |
12 (women; 1984–1996) 10 (men; 1986–1996) |
516 women 258 men |
No significant association with risk. | (75) | |
| 62,573 women; 58,279 men (aged 55±69 years) | 6.3 | 1074 | Amount specific data (frequency of consumption): less 1 per month RR=1.0 2±3 per month RR=0.7 1 per week RR=0.6 2 per week RR=0.5 more than 3 per week RR=0.5 NOTE: consumption of CV more than twice a week associated with significant reduction in lung cancer risk (p=0.003). |
(289) | |
| 18.314 heavy smokers and asbestos-exposed workers 14,254 women (50–69 years) 4060 men (45–69 years) |
8 (1989–2001) | 742 | Amount specific data (servings per week): less than 0.5 RR=1.0 0.6–1.2 RR=1.36 1.3–1.9 RR=0.89 2.0–3.4 RR=0.96 more than 3.5 RR=0.68 NOTE: patients in placebo group of CARET cohort study - consumption of CV associated with significant reduction in lung cancer with more than 3.5 servings a week (p=0.01). |
(205) | |
| 272,303 | 7–16 | 2172 | No significant association with risk. NOTE: assessment of five epidemiological studies (conducted between 1993 and 2002). |
(263) | |
| 519,978 men and women (25–70 years) | 10 (1992–2002) | ∼16,000 | No significant association with risk. | (188) | |
| — | — | — | CV intake may be weakly and inversely associated with lung cancer risk. Gene-diet interaction is the strongest inverse association with the homozygous null genotypes for GST-M1 and GST-T1. NOTE: systematic review with thirty studies included on the association between lung cancer and either total CV consumption (6 cohort and 12 case-control studies) or specific CV (1 cohort and 11 case-control studies). |
(159) | |
| Colorectal cancer | 586 men (colon or rectal cancer) 1411 control patients |
— | 256 colon cancer 330 rectal cancer |
Increase in colon cancer risk with decreased consumption of vegetables, especially those in cruciferous family. Study in women (396 cancer patients) yield similar results). | (94) |
| 971 | — | 153 proximal & 201 distal | Vegetable consumption over a lifetime was consistently protective for both proximal and distal colon cancer | (308) | |
| 297 | 4 (1979–1983) | 112 males | Amount specific data (rank of consumption): Low vegetable OR=1.0 2 OR=0.6 3 OR=0.9 High vegetable OR=0.3 NOTE: consumption of CV associated with reduction in colon cancer risk in men. No significant association with risk in women. |
(296) | |
| 784 | 4 (1984–1988) | 286 | Amount specific data (level of consumption): 1.0 RR=1.0 2.0 RR=0.66 3.0 RR=0.49 4.0 RR=0.54 NOTE: consumption of CV associated with reduction in colon cancer risk (p<0.05). |
(21) | |
| 41,837 women | 4 (1986–1989) | 264 | No significant association with risk. | (270) | |
| 88,764 women 47,325 men |
1980–1996 | 937 | No significant association with risk. | (187) | |
| 62,573 women; 58,279 men (aged 55±69 years) | 6.3 | 910 (587 colon & 323 rectal cancer patients) | Amount specific data (women with colon cancer; category of consumption): 1.0 (low) RR=1.0 2.0 RR=0.6 3.0 RR=0.85 4.0 RR=0.66 5.0 (high) RR=0.51 NOTE: consumption of CV associated with reduction in colon cancer risk in women (p=0.004). No significant association with colon or rectal cancer risk in men. A significant positive association with rectal cancer risk in women (p=0.05). |
(288) | |
| 62,609 men 70,554 women |
5 (1992–1997) | 298 men 210 women |
Amount specific data (men with colon cancer; servings per day): Less than 0.08 RR=1.0 0.08- less than 0.16 RR=0.74 0.16- less than 0.23 RR=0.84 0.23- less than 0.41 RR=0.56 More than 0.41 RR=0.66 NOTE: consumption of CV associated with a reduction in colon cancer risk in men (p=0.03). No significant association with colon cancer risk in women. |
(184) | |
| 1773 (40–79 years) | — | 834 colon cancer cases | No association with overall colorectal cancer risk. No association with rectal cancer risk. Amount specific data (patients with proximal colon cancer; quartile of consumption): 1.0 OR=1.00 2.0 OR=0.81 3.0 OR=0.81 4.0 OR=0.65 NOTE: consumption of CV associated with reduced risk of proximal colon cancer (p=0.041). Amount specific data (patients with distal colon cancer; quartile of consumption): 5.0 OR=1.00 6.0 OR=0.91 7.0 OR=0.85 8.0 OR=0.63 NOTE: consumption of CV associated with reduced risk of distal colon cancer (p=0.035). |
(8) | |
| — | — | — | High intake of CV may decrease the risk of colorectal and colon cancer. Overall studies: Cruciferous vegetables (n=35) p<0.001 Cabbage (n=9) p=0.014 Broccoli (n=6) p=0.050 NOTE: systematic review with 35 studies included on the association between colon cancer and CV consumption (10 cohort studies, 1 nested case-control study, and 24 case-control studies). |
(301) | |
| Breast cancer | 5482 women (50–74 years) | — | 2832 breast cancer cases | Amount specific data (median servings per day): 0.1 OR=1.0 0.2 OR=0.90 0.5 OR=0.88 1.1 OR=0.76 NOTE: consumption of CV associated with reduced risk of breast cancer (p=0.01). |
(277) |
| 351,825 women | 6–10 | 7377 invasive cancer cases | No association with overall breast cancer risk. | (262) | |
| 3015 women (25–64 years) | — | 1459 breast cancer cases | Using urinary ITC levels as a biological measure of glucosinolate intake resulted in an inverse association with breast cancer risk (p<0.01). Association with breast cancer more consistent in homozygous null genotypes for GST-M1 (p=0.05) and GST-T1 (p=0.03). |
(81) | |
| 1550 women (cases matched by age) | — | 740 incident, primary, histologically confirmed breast cancer cases | No association with overall breast cancer risk. No association with breast cancer risk and homozygous null GST-M1 and GST-T1. Mild association with breast cancer risk in premenopausal women (p=0.058). No association with breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women. |
(7) | |
| 2150 women (<65 years) | — | 1052 breast cancer cases | No association with overall breast cancer risk. No association with overall breast cancer risk and homozygous null GST-M1 and MST-T1. |
(268) | |
| 6072 women | — | 3035 breast cancer cases | No association with overall breast cancer risk. Subjects reporting greater Chinese cabbage (p=0.049) intake had significantly lower postmenopausal breast cancer risk. Women with GST-P1 Val/Val polymorphism and low CV intake have greater breast cancer risk (1.74-fold). |
(161) | |
| — | — | — | Consumption of CV associated with reduced risk of breast cancer (p=0.047). NOTE: thirteen studies included in meta-analysis (2 cohort studies and 11 case-control studies). Inverse association with breast cancer risk in premenopausal women (p=0.004). No association with breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women. |
(175) | |
| Prostate cancer | 17,633 men (<35 years) | 20 (1966–1986) | 149 fatal cancer cases | No association with overall prostate cancer risk. | (112) |
| 58,279 men (55–69 years) | 6.3 | 610 prostate cancer cases | No association with overall prostate cancer risk. | (244) | |
| 1253 men | — | 617 incident prostate cancer cases | Amount specific data (grams per day): less than 8.7 OR=1.0 8.7–24.0 OR=0.95 24.1–44.6 OR=0.69 NOTE: consumption of CV associated with reduced risk of prostate cancer (p=0.03). |
(119) | |
| 1456 men (40–64 years) | — | 753 prostate cancer cases | Amount specific data (servings per week): less than 1 OR=1.0 1–2.9 OR=0.84 more than 3 OR=0.59 NOTE: consumption of CV associated with reduced risk of prostate cancer (p=0.02). |
(46) | |
| 3237 men (>84 years) | — | 1619 prostate cancer cases | Amount specific data (all cases; grams per day): less than 8.8 OR=1.0 8.9–21.23 OR=1.10 21.3–36.6 OR=0.90 36.7–72.9 OR=1.04 more than 72.9 OR=0.78 NOTE: consumption of CV associated with decreased risk of prostate canacer (p=0.02). Amount specific data (advanced cases; grams per day): less than 8.8 OR=1.0 8.9–21.23 OR=1.01 21.3–36.6 OR=0.75 36.7–72.9 OR=0.88 more than 72.9 OR=0.61 NOTE: consumption of CV associated with reduced risk of advanced prostate cancer (p=0.006). |
(152) | |
| — | — | — | High intake of CV may decrease the risk of prostate cancer. NOTE: meta-analysis of literature with 12 studies included (six studies demonstrate clear associations with a p<0.05, and one reporting borderline significance p=0.06). |
(156) | |
| 47,365 men | 14 (1986–2000) | 2969 cases of nonstage T1a prostate cancer | Amount specific data (cases in men aged <65 years; servings per week) 1ess than 1 RR=1.0 1.1–2 RR=1.03 2.1–3 RR=0.97 3.1–5 RR-0.83 more than 5 0.81 NOTE: consumption of CV associated with reduced risk of prostate cancer in men aged <65 (p=0.02). No association with prostate cancer risk in men aged >65. Inverse association with organ-confined prostate cancer in men aged <65 (p = −0.007). |
(93) | |
| 130,544 men | 4.8 | 1104 prostate cancer cases | No significant association with risk. | (141) | |
| 965 men (45–85 years) | - | 428 incident prostate cancer cases | Amount specific data (CV; grams per month): less than 680 OR=1.0 681–1081 OR=0.54 1081–1892 OR=0.78 more than 1893 OR=0.58 NOTE: consumption of CV associated with reduced risk of prostate cancer (p=0.002). Amount specific data (broccoli; grams per month): less than 117 OR=1.0 118–320 OR=0.74 321–822 OR=0.67 more than 822 OR=0.72 NOTE: consumption of broccoli associated with reduced risk of prostate cancer (p=0.005). Inverse association between prostate cancer risk and consumption of CV greater in individuals with functional GST-M1 (OR=0.49). No association with prostate cancer risk in men with GST-T1 null genotype |
(129) | |
| 29,361 men (55–74 years) | 4.2 | 1338 prostate cancer cases | No association with overall prostate cancer risk or aggressive prostate cancer risk. Amount specific data (extraprostatic cancer; servings per day): 0.1 RR=1.0 0.2 RR=1.0 0.4 RR=0.70 0.6 RR=0.69 1.1 RR=0.60 NOTE: consumption of CV associated with reduced risk of extraprostatic cancer (p=0.02). Inverse association between broccoli consumption and aggressive prostate cancer risk (p=0.03) and extraprostatic cancer risk (p=0.02). |
(146) | |
| 11,405 men | 9.4 | 328 prostate cancer cases | Amount specific data (total glucosinolate intake; mg per day): less than 5.1 HR=1.0 5.1–7.8 HR=0.88 7.9–11.8 HR=0.78 More than 11.9 0.68 NOTE: glucosinolate intake associated with reduced risk of prostate cancer (p=0.03). Amount specific data (glucosinolate-containg food consumption; grams per day): less than 10.0 HR=1.0 10.0–15.7 HR=0.91 15.8–24.2 HR=0.87 more than 24.3 HR=0.72 NOTE: consumption of glucosinolate-containing foods associated with reduced risk of prostate cancer (p=0.05). |
(269) | |
| — | — | — | CV intake may be associated to the decreased risk of prostate cancer NOTE: meta-analysis of 13 studies (7 cohort studies, 6 case-control studies). |
(174) | |
| Pancreatic cancer | 1753 men and women | — | 526 pancreatic cancer cases | Amount specific data (men; servings per week): 1 (low) OR=1.0 2 OR=0.7 3 OR=0.5 4 (high) OR=0.5 NOTE: consumption of CV associated with decreased risk of pancreatic cancer in men (p=0.004). Amount specific data (women; servings per week): 1 (low) OR=1.0 2 OR=0.7 3 OR=0.6 4 (high) OR=0.4 NOTE: consumption of CV associated with decreased risk of pancreatic cancer in women (p=0.002). |
(255) |
| 88,077 (39,227 women and 48,850 men) | 6.8 | 135 pancreatic cancer cases (61 women; 74 men) | Amount specific data (servings per week): less than 1 HR=1.0 1.0–1.4 HR=0.81 1.5–2.9 HR=0.63 more than 3 HR=0.70 Nonsignificant inverse association between CV consumption and pancreatic cancer risk. Cabbage consumption significantly inversely associated with pancreatic cancer risk (one or more servings per week compared with never consumed; HR=0.62). |
(160) | |
| 183,522 men and women | 14–20 | 529 pancreatic cancer cases | No significant association with risk. | (208) | |
| Multiple cancer studies | — | — | See reference | Subjects who consumed at least one portion of CV per week as compared with those with no or occasional consumption associated with significantly reduced risk of oral cavity and pharynx (OR=0.83); esophageal (OR=0.72); colorectal (OR=0.83); breast (OR=0.83); and kidney (OR=0.68) cancer. Nonsignificant inverse association between CV consumption and stomach (OR=0.90); liver (OR=0.72); pancreatic (OR=0.90); laryngeal (OR=0.84); endometrial (OR=0.93); ovarian (OR=0.91); and prostate (OR=0.87) cancer. |
(24) |
RR, relative risk; CV, cruciferous vegetables; OR, odds ratio; HR, hazard ratio.