Table 3.

Detailed metabolic profile of calcium channel blockers.

Calcium channel blocker name	Metabolites	Enzymes	References
Amlodipine	Pyridine derivative	CYP3A4	[69]
	De-amino amlodipine	CYP3A4	[69]
	Ester hydrolysis of the S-methoxycarbonyl group	Carboxylesterases	[69]
	Amlodipine glucuronides	UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase	[69]
Diltiazem	N-desmethyl diltiazem	CYP3A4	[70]
	O-desacetyl-N-desmethyl diltiazem	CYP3A4	[70]
Felodipine	Dehydro felodipine	CYP3A4	[71]
Isradipine	Pyridine of isradipine	CYP3A4	[72]
	Carboxylic acid of isradipine	CYP3A4	[72]
	Carboxylic acid of isradipine pyridine	CYP3A4	[72]
Nifedipine	Pyridine of nifedipine	CYP3A4	[79]
	Carboxylic acid of nifedipine	CYP3A4	[79]
	Carboxylic acid of nifedine pyridine	CYP3A4	[79]
Nimodipine	Dehydro nimopidine	CYP3A4	[74, 98]
	Carboxylic acid of nimopidine	CYP3A4	[74, 98]
	Cardoxylic acid of dehydronimopidine	CYP3A4	[74, 98]
Nisoldipine	Hydroxylation of the isobutyl moiety	CYP3A4	[75]
	Dehydrogenation of the 1, 4-dihydropyridine system	CYP3A4	[75]
	Oxidative ester cleavage	CYP3A4	[75]
	Hydroxylation of one of the methyl groups in 2-position and subsequent oxidation to the carboxylic acid	CYP3A4	[75]
	Hydroxylation of one of the methyl groups in 6-position and subsequent oxidation to the carboxylic acid	CYP3A4	[75]
	Oxidation of one of the methyl groups of the isobutyl moiety to the carboxyl group reduction of the aromatic nitro group	CYP3A4	[75]
	Glucuronidation	UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase	[75]
Nitrendipine	Dehydro nitredipine	CYP3A4	[76]
	Carboxylic acid of nitrendipine	CYP3A4	[76]
	Cardoxylic acid of dehydronitrendipine	CYP3A4	[76]
Verapamil	O-Desmethyl verapamil		[77, 78]
	O-Desmethyl verapamil (D-702)	CYP2C8, CYP2C18, CYP2C9	[77, 78]
	O-Desmethyl verapamil (D-703)	CYP2C8, CYP2C9	[77, 78]
	Norverapamil	CYP2C8, CYP3A4, CYP3A5, CYP1A2	[77, 78]
	D-617	CYP2C8	[77, 78]